全 文 ：ConstraintsandOpportunitiesforSustainableLivelihoodsand
CashIncomeGenerationfromNTFPsintheMountains
ofNorthernPartsofPakistan
HassanSher1,JehangirKhan2,KiramatKhan3,HazratSher4,
MuhammadElyemeni1
(1DepartmentofBotany,KingSaudUniversityRydah,SaudiArabia;2FoodandAgriculture
OrganizationoftheUnitedNationPakistanOfice,Islamabad,Pakistan;3DepartmentofEnvironmental
Sciences,COMSATSUniversity,AbbottabadCampus,Pakistan;4DepartmentofBotany,
KohatUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Pakistan)
Abstract:Pakistan曚sforestresourcebaseismostlyfoundinthemountainsoftheNorth灢WestFrontierProv灢
ince(NWFP)supportingthelivelihoodoftheruralpoorandprovidingdifferentecologicalservices.Thepres灢
entstudywas,therefore,initiatedwiththeaimtoevaluatedifferentconstraintsandopportunitiesforsustain灢
ablelivelihoodsandcashincomegenerationfromNTFPsinthemountainousareaofNWFP,Pakistanduring
2008.Informationwascolectedthroughquestionnaireandinterviewsduringfieldtrips.Atotalof117NTF灢
Psspecieshavebeenrecordedwhicharebeingusedlocalyforvariouspurposessuchasfuelwood,fodder,
medicinalplants,vegetables,mushroom,agriculturaltoolsmaking,furniture,thatching,shade,fencing/
poles,ornamentalpurposeandanimalproducts.Themajorityofplantsaremulti灢functionallikePinuswali灢
chianaprovidestimber,firewood,torchwood,theleaves/smalbranchesareusedasthatchforroofing,split
logsareusedforfencingandthedecomposedneedlesarecolectedashumusforagriculturalfields.These
productswerewidelyusedbytheindigenouscommunitysupportingtheirlivelihood.Thestudyproposespro灢
tectionandsustainablemanagementofthesevaluableresourcesforrurallivelihoods,whichmightbeuseful
fordevelopingregionalstrategiesofsustainablemanagementofforestresources.
Keywords:Livelihood;Forestresources;Communities;Management;Unsustainableuse;Opportunity
CLCnumber:Q948暋暋暋暋暋暋DocumentCode:A暋暋暋暋暋暋暋ArticleID:0253灢2700(2010)02灢167灢10
1暋Introduction
Forestresourcesinthestudyarearepresent
uniqueandenormousdiversityoffloraandfauna
mostlygrowinginfragileecosystemsthatare
predominantlyinhabitedbyruralpoorandindig灢
enous communities. Among the forest re灢
sources,NonTimberForestProducts(NTFPs)
playasignificantroleinthesubsistenceeconomy
ofthepeople,especialythoselivingintherug灢
gedandimpoverishedhils,mountainsandrural
interiors.Thecolection,simpleprocessingand
tradingofNTFPscontributesignificantlytothe
cashincomeofthepoorandwomeninmoun灢
tainousarea(Sheretal灡,2004a).Alargevarie灢
tyoftheseproductslikemedicinalplants,morel
mushroom,fuel/timberwood,fodderandsome
animalproductsetcisaccessibletoforestdwel灢
ers,theexploitationismostlycapitalextensive
andhaveenormouseconomicpotential.Dueto
theoften灢lowcommercialvalueofunprocessed
forestproducts,ithas proved necessaryto
searchwaysandmeanstoaddvaluetotheprod灢
ucts,whichcouldenabletheforestinhabitants
tobettercommercializetheirproductsandmore
efficientlytransformtheirnaturalcapitalintofi灢
nancialcapital.(Agrawaland Gibson,1999;
Hussainetal灡,2004).Inthelasttwodecades
forestryissueshavebeenassociatedwithwider
云 南 植 物 研 究暋2010,32(2):167~176
ActaBotanicaYunnanica暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋DOI:10灡3724/SP灡J灡1143灡2010灡09119
Receiveddate:2009灢06灢15,Accepteddate:2009灢09灢14
socio灢economic and environmental concerns,
suchasbiodiversityloss,climatechange,pover灢
tyand governance (Angelsen and Wunder,
2003;Sheretal灡,2005).Inparticular,forest灢
ersandtenurespecialistshaveunderlinedthene灢
cessityofunderstandingpeople曚srightsinland
andtheincentivestructureforlanduseinthe
questforeffectivenaturalresourcemanagement.
Theserecent perspectivesinnaturalresource
analysisemphasizetherelevanceofunderstand灢
ingthenature,adequacyoflocalpeople曚sre灢
sourcerights,thelivelihoodopportunitiesand
theexistingmanagementsystemstoensurethe
sustainableuseoftheresourcebase.Theindige灢
nousforestdwelershavebeenreportedasbest
forestmanagersduetotheirintimateknowledge
offorestenvironment,theirculturaldependence
onitsresourcesandmanygenerationsofharmo灢
niousco灢existencewiththeecosystem.(Poffen灢
berger,2002;Wolverkamp,2000;Sheretal灡,
2005;Fochoetal灡,2009).Theseapproaches
linkthemaintenanceoflivelihoodsanddevelop灢
mentofforestdwelingpeopletoforestresource
managementandconservation.Thesustainable
managementofthesetraditionalyusedNTFPs
notonlyhelpconservenationalyandglobaly
importantbiodiversitybutalsoprovidecritical
resourcestosustainlivelihoods.However,un灢
sustainableandlargescaleharvestingofNTFPs
fromtheirnaturalhabitatswithoutprovidingeq灢
uitablebenefittothelocalpeopleandgovern灢
mentisofgraveconcern.
Thestudy arealiein the Hindu Kush
Mountains,locatedinthenorthernpartofPaki灢
stan,andrangesinelevationfrom1200to3660
m.Theareaisnotclimaticalyuniform.Alti灢
tudeandexposurehasgreatlymodifiedclimatic
conditionswithinthearea.Onthebasisofalti灢
tude,climateandvegetation,theareacanbedi灢
videdintoMoistTemperateForest;Sub灢Alpine
Forest;andAlpineglimpses.Thelowerslopes
oftheareaareextensivelyfarmedwhileforest,
especialyofconifers,becomesprominentat
higheraltitudes(Fig灡1).Forestintheareais
thepropertyofanumberofprivatelandowners
withtheProvincialForestDepartmentofNWFP
havingsomeresponsibilityfor management.
Revenuefromtimbersalesissplitbetweenown灢
ersandtheForestDepartment.Nodoubtthea灢
vailableforestinthestudyareahasthepotential
ofprovidingasustainablesourceformanygoods
andservicesintheformofNTFPsyetaresuf灢
feringfromdegradation,mainlyduetotimber
harvestingandovergrazing bydomesticlive灢
stock.Itisestimatedthatthevolumeofilegal
harvestexceedsthatofthelegalharvest(reac灢
hingto2灡6 milioncubicfeetin2007).The
studyarea,districtSwat,isconsideredtobea
primesiteforHinduKush灢HimalayanNTFPs,
especialyofmedicinalplantsfoundinPakistan
havingforesttheir mainhabitat.Therehave
beennoregulationsforprotectionofNTFPs,
Fig灡1暋Landusemapofthestudyarea(Source:GISLab,
ForestManagementCentre(FMC)PeshawarPakistan)
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someofthesehavebecomescarceprimarilydue
tocommercialover灢harvestingcoupledwithhigh
grazingpressure.Thepresentstudywas,there灢
fore,initiatedwiththeaimtoassessdifferent
constraintsand opportunitiesfor sustainable
livelihoodsandcashincomegenerationfrom
NTFPsinthemountainousareaoftheinvestiga灢
tion.Thiscouldbeusefulindevelopingregional
strategiesforsustainablemanagementofforest
resources.
2暋 MaterialsandMethods
Acombinationofquantitativeandqualitativeresearch
methodswasusedinvariouspartsofthestudy.Qualita灢
tivedatawereparticularlyusefulinunderstandingpeople曚s
perspectives,attitudes,beliefsandprocessesforinterpre灢
tingquantitativedata.Theconceptsofvalidityandrelia灢
bilitywereappliedforintegrationofqualitativeandquan灢
titativetechniques.Thefieldworkwasconductedduring
springandsummer2008oversaperiodofsevenmonths.
Priortoavisittotheresearchsites,aquestionnaire
wasdesignedandpre灢testedtofindoutifitactualy
worked.Thequestionnairewastriedoutonasmalgroup
of5peopleinarandomlyselectedvilageoutsidethesam灢
plingframeofresearchsites.Intheweekfolowingthe
pre灢testing,amendmentswereincorporatedintheques灢
tionnaire.Participatorytechniqueswereusedtocolectin灢
formation.Themaintechniquesandtoolsfordatacolec灢
tionincludedhouseholdsurveys,keyinformantinterviews
andfocusgroupdiscussions(FGDs).Questionnairewas
administeredtosolicitinformationonsocio灢economiccon灢
ditionsandforestresourceutilizationwithrespecttotheir
conservationanddevelopmentaspects.Atotal155house灢
holds wereinterviewedduringthehouseholdsurvey.
FGDsonspecificissueswereconductedwithelderknowl灢
edgeablepeopletounderstandthemechanismofnatural
resourcedistributionandbenefitsharing with minority
groups.
Thedatawerecodedandthenanalyzedbyusingde灢
scriptivestatisticsanalysistechniques.Thecodingin灢
volvedstructuringtheresponsesavailablefromtheques灢
tionnaireandassigningthemnominalvaluesforanalytical
purposes.
3暋ResultsandDiscussion
Milionsofpeoplethroughoutthe world
makeextensiveuseofNTFPsbothforsubsist灢
enceandcash,eitheronaregularbasisorasa
falbackduringtimesofneed,andconstitutea
safetynetfunctiontoruralhouseholds.The
studyrevealedpeopledependenceon NTFPs,
differentcategoriesof NTFPs,itsextraction
methodandimpactofextraction,contributionof
NTFPstothehouseholdeconomyanddeter灢
minedsafetynetroleofNTFPs.
Thestudyshowedthatforestdwelersused
awiderangeofNTFPs,categorizedasfuel
wood(7)food(23),medication(70)andcon灢
structionincludingroofing(7).Otherpurposes
includedincomegenerationsuchassaleofmush灢
rooms(notusedforsubsistence)andmedicinal
plants;toolandfurniture;gamesandhandi灢
crafts,andshadeetc.Majorityofplantsis
multi灢functionaland,therefore,veryvaluableto
forestdwelers.Forinstance,bluepine(Pinus
walichiana)providestimber,firewood,use
torch wood,andleaves/smal branches use
thatchforroofing,splitlogsforfencingandde灢
composedneedles(colectedfromforestfloor)
ashumusforagriculturalfields(Table1).The
studyrevealedthatthelocalpeoplegetbenefits
intheformofcultivatedfruittrees,toolmaking
materials,foodand medicine,contributingto
humancapital,healthandlabourstrengths.
Moreover,inagro灢pastoraleconomy,contribu灢
tiontolivestockandcropproductionsystemsin
theformoffodderandleaflitterrespectivelyis
worthmentioning.Thehouseholdsinvolvedin
NTFPsextractionderivemainlysubsistenceand
cashincome,achievingfoodsecurityandeven
tradinginNTFPsproducts.
3灡1暋FirewoodandFodderColection
暋暋Thestudyshowedthatabout76percentof
thehouseholdsintheinvestigatedareasusefuel
woodfordomesticpurposes.Themajorityof
households(93灡4%)werefoundtocolectfire灢
woodfromcommunalconiferousforest,while
6灡6% householdspurchasingitfromthemar灢
ket.Bluepineisthedominantspeciesusedby
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Table1暋ListsofimportantNTFPsandsubsistencetimberutilizationbyhouseholdsintheresearchsites
Product Unit
Averageannualquantitycolectedandproportionofhouseholdinvolved
Mingora Khwazakhela Kalam
Mean % Mean % Mean %
Importance
Cash Subsistence
Timber
Houses cft 600 100 650 100 30 100 - ++
Fencing cft 0 0 0 0 300 83 - ++
Bedmaking Pole 2灡5 100 2 100 3 100 - ++
NTFPs
Firewood HL 579 100 580 100 316 100 - ++
Torchwood HL 13 100 20 97 7 100 - ++
Wildvegetables kg 27 91 40 100 8 76 + ++
Medicinalplants
灢Mushrooms g 242 75 246 67 53 19 ++ -
灢Shengo kg 18 8 40 19 0 0 ++ +
灢Menial kg 14 8 47 19 0 0 ++ +
灢Mushkbala kg 25 8 57 19 0 0 ++ +
灢Others Occasionaluse - ++
Fodder
灢Oakleaves HL 465 95 534 94 241 89 - ++
灢Pasturerent Rs. 0 0 0 0 200 100 + -
Foresthumus Bags 0 0 0 0 94 93 - ++
Animalproducts
灢Bearcubs ++ -
灢Furs/skins Opportunisticcolectionbyhouseholdsbutmainlycolectedbyhunters ++ -
灢Musk ++ -
灢Bushmeat - +
Fruit
灢Walnut kg 37 55 32 37 108 78 ++ ++
灢Others Awidevarietyofwildfruitsusedforsubsistence - ++
Thatchingmaterial HL 6 97 7 100 3 98 - ++
Walnutbark(dandsa)
andbirchbark Ilegalycolectedbyprofessionalsmugglers.Notreportedbyhouseholds ++ +
Key:-:Noimportance;+:Lessimportance;++:Highimportance;HL:Headload(40-45kgformenand30-35kgforwomen);
cft:meancubicfeet;Rs:PakistaniRupees;Bags:asacof2-5kg.Annualconsumptionoftimberusedforhouseholdconstructionis
basedonanaveragehouselifeof60yearsandtimberextractedfromabigtreeis600cftinformoflogsand450cftinformofscants.
WeightofMushroom,wildvegetablesandwalnutwascalculatedwhendry
82%ofhouseholdsandwasduetoeasyavaila灢
bilityinnearbyvilage,easysplittingandnore灢
strictioninusing.Oak(Quercusincana)was
seentobeusedby12percentofhouseholdsand
whereasonly8%ofhouseholdswerefoundto
usecedar (Cedrusdeodara).Onaverageal
householdswereshowntohavebeenusingone
womenheadload(approx.30-35kg)offire灢
woodperdayinsummerforcookingandtwo
menheadloads(eachmanheadloadisapproxi灢
mately40-45kg)perdayinwinterforboth
cookingandheating.Theaveragenumberof
treesremovedbyeachhouseholdperyearforfu灢
elwoodwas5.Themajorityofthehouseholds
(88%)removalgreentreesforfuelwoodand
only12percentofthehouseholdsuseddrytrees
forwinterfuelwood.Theconsumptionoffuel
woodbyhouseholdsishigherinmountainsthan
plainduetotheharshwinterseasonandlackof
meanstoaffordthealternativeenergysources
duetoprevailingpoverty.Similarresultswere
alsodocumentedbyHaenusleretal灡(2000)and
Changetal灡(2000).Theyreportedthatfire
woodconsumptionisusualyhigherinruralare灢
ascomparetotheurbansites.Theaveragetime
requiredtocolectoneheadloadoffirewoodwas
2灡5hours.Majorityofthehouseholds(94%)
wereoftheviewthatthetimerequiredforfire
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woodcolection hasdoubledinthelastten
years.Theincreaseintimeforcolectionoffire灢
woodappearedtobeduetodepletionofforest
surroundingthevilages.Similarresultswere
alsoobservedbyGunasena (1994)and Khan
(1994).Bothofthemreportedthattheforests
nearresidentialareasusualyremainundergrea灢
terbioticpressurecomparedtoremoteforests.
Thestudyrevealedthattheforestcontribu灢
tedamajorportionoflivestockfeedasthefod灢
derproductionfromfarmlandwasnotsufficient
enoughto meetthefeedrequirementforthe
livestock.Duringrestoftheperiodoftheyear,
livestockgrazefreelysupplementedbyoakleav灢
es.Theuseofoakleavesforfodderusewas
higherascomparedtootherspecies.Theaver灢
ageoakfodderutilizationwas534femalehead
loadsperhouseholdperyear.
3灡2暋EdibleFoodproducts
Thestudyindicatedthatthehouseholds
used25differentplantspeciesasvegetables.A灢
bout89灡7% ofthehouseholdswereshownto
usewildvegetablestosupplementtheexisting
food.Thewildvegetablesarecolectedinsum灢
merbothforfreshconsumptionandasfoodre灢
serveforwinter.Theaverageconsumptionof
wilddriedvegetableswas23kgperhousehold
peryear.Similarly,ninedifferentwildfruit
plantsviz:Berberislycum,Diospyroslotus,Ficus
indicaJuglansregia,Monothicabuxifolia,Mo灢
rusalba,Punicagranatum ,Prunuspadusand
Viburnum nervosum wereusedaswildfruit
plants.Thesaleoffruitsandnutswasverylim灢
ited,exceptwalnut(Juglansregia).Fiftynine
percent(59%)ofhouseholdshadwalnuttrees
ontheirprivateownedland.Theaveragenum灢
berofwalnuttreesperhouseholdwasfivewith
anaverageproductionof115kgpertree/year.
Themajorportionofwalnutproductionwasused
forsaleorbarteredwhereasonlyasmalquantity
keptuseforthehouseholdsconsumption.
3灡3暋Medicinalplants
Thestudyindicatedthatabout10medicinal
plantsarelocalyusedintraditionalsystemof
medicinesforcuringvarioushealthdisorders.
Someplantsspeciesareconsideredforthetreat灢
mentofonlyonespecificdiseasewhileother
havemultiplesuchuses(Table2).Thestudy
revealedthatoldermenandwomenhavearich
knowledgeoflocationand usesof medicinal
plantsforcuringdifferentdiseases.Themost
widelytradedmedicinalplantspeciesaremorels
localyknownasguchi(Morchelaesculenta)
(Fig灡2).Morelsareexportedtointernationalmar灢
ketsandalsousedbylocaltraditionalhealers(ha灢
kims)formedicinalpurposesonly.About50tons
ofdriedmorelsaretradedeachyearbyabout50000
forestdwelers,mainlychildrenandwomen.The
localpeoplehadtheknowledgeabouttheassociation
ofmushroomswithdiferentplantspecieswhere
theycaneasilyfindthem.Similarresultswereal灢
soreportedbySheretal灡(2004a)whopointed
outthatthepeopleinmountainshaveaccessto
diversemedicinalplantspeciesbutaretotaly
unawareofprofitability,tradeandfuturepros灢
pectsofmedicinalplants.Thelocalpeoplelose
muchoftheirprofitfrom medicinalplants,es灢
pecialymushroom,duetocrudecolectionpro灢
cessingmethodsandinthesaleexploitationby
middlemenintheirsaleprocedure.
Fig灡2暋Morelmushroom
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Table2暋MedicinalPlantsusesintraditionalsystemofmedicine
Familyname Botanicalname Localname Diseasestreatedrecipepreparation
Aliaceae Aliumsativum Ouga
GroundbulbmixedwithbrownSugarandistakenwithglassof
waterforthetreatmentofhighBloodpressure
Araceae Arisaemajacuemonti Marjarrai
Dryrhizomeisboiledinwaterandisgivenforthecuringof
throatinfectionsandcough
Asteraceae Artimisiabrevifolia Tarkha Powderedleavesandfloralpartsaretakenwithwaterforthere灢movalofintestinalworm..
Asteraceae Cichorumintybus Han Extractoftherootisusedforthecuringofjaundice.
Berberidaceae Berberislyceum Kwaray
Powderedrootbarkistakenwithwaterforthecuringofaldis灢
eases.
Brassicaseae Lipidiumsativum Halam Adecoctionofmatureseedsisusedforthecuringofstomachic.
Fagaceae Quercusdilatata Banj
Adecoctionoffruitsisusedforthetreatmentofurinarytractin灢
fection.
Fumariaceae Fumariaindica Paprra Extractofthewholeplantisusedforthecuringofjaundice.
Geraniaceae Geraniumwalichianum Srazela Extractoftherootisusedtopromotelactationinwomen.
Hypericaceae Hypericumperforatum ShinChay
Driedflowersaretakenwithglassofwaterforthecuringofde灢
pressionandepilepsy.
3灡4暋Animalproducts
Over40birdspecies,includingtheglobaly
threatenedwesterntragopan(Tragopanmelano灢
cephalus)andmanyrareandthreatenedmam灢
malspeciesoftheWesternHimalayaarefound
inthestudyarea.Huntersarekeentofindthe
animalslikemuskdeer(Moschuscrysogaster),
markhor(Caprifalconeri),ibex(Capraibex)
andsomebirdspecieslikepheasantsareusedfor
meat,trophies,skinsandmuskglandextraction
frommuskdeer.
3灡5暋ToolsMakingandotherusefulNTFPs
Specificplantspecieslikeoakwereusedby
householdsformakingagriculturalimplements
likehandlesfordifferentimplements,yokes,
ploughsetc.Thepolesofbluepine(Pinuswal灢
ichiana)werecommonlyusedfortraditionalbed
makingandfurniturepurposesbyal house灢
holds.Similarly,torchwoodistheresinous
woodwhichisextractedfromcoreofbluepine
treeandwasusedforlightingandhelpinginthe
burningoffuelwood.Themajorityofhouse灢
holds(99%)wasfoundtousetorchwood.The
averageconsumptionoftorchwoodperhouse灢
holdperyearwas20 maleheadloadsinthe
studyarea.Needlesofconifersandsmalshrubs
likePlectranthusrogosusareusedbyalhouse灢
holdsasthatchingmaterialforroofmaking.O灢
veral38headloadswerefoundtohaveusedfor
constructionofatwobedroomhouse.Theaver灢
ageannualconsumptionwasfiveheadloadsper
householdfortherepairofexistinghouses.Hu灢
mus,amixtureofleaves,branchesandsoilis
foundonforestfloor.Theresultsrevealedthat
93percentofhouseholdsusedanaverageof94
bagsofhumusperyearformanuringofagricul灢
turalfieldseitherdirectlyorindirectlyafteru灢
singitaslitterforcattle.Moreover,driedroot
barkofwildwalnutcaleddandasaisfrequently
usedforcleaningteeth,particularlybywomen,
asitimpartsapinkishcolourtolips.Otheruses
ofNTFPsincludedutilizationofsomeplantspe灢
ciesforbrooms,teethcleaning,honeyproduc灢
tion,fishpoisons,ropemakingetcwhichwere
occasionalanddifficulttomeasureatthehouse灢
holdlevelinthepresentinvestigation.
3灡6暋ContributionoftheNTFPstosubsistence
andcashincome
ThestudyshowedthatNTFPscontribute
to25灡6percentofhouseholdgrossincomeper
year(Fig灡3).ThecontributionoftheNTFPsto
subsistenceincomeishighest(44灡3%)among
al sourcesofincome withleastcontribution
(7灡4%)tohouseholdcashincome.TheNTFPs
contributiontosubsistenceincomeincreasesub灢
stantialy by including livestock graze and
browse,medicinalusesandotherminorandoc灢
casionalusesofplantspeciesformakingbrooms,
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Fig灡3暋Contributionofdifferentlivelihoodsourcesto
averagegrossincomeperhouseholdperyear
teethcleaning,medicines,ropemakingandfish
poisonsetc.Consideringofcontributionofeach
NTFPtogrossNTFPsincome(Fig灡3,4),fuel
woodhasthehighestcontribution(50%),fol灢
lowed by fodder (26灡1%)and wild fruits
(7灡7%).Theoveral dependenceofthepoor
householdsonNTFPsforcashincomegenera灢
tionwasslightly morethanthericherhouse灢
holds.Thepoorhouseholdswereinvolvedin
morelabourintensiveandlowreturnactivities
likemedicinalplantsextractionwhereastherich
householdsgeneratemuchoftheircashincome
fromprofitableactivitieslikesaleofwalnuts.
Theincomefrom mushroomappearedtohave
beenlowinthelowestquartilesascomparedto
others.Thereasonforthisappearedtheavaila灢
bilityoflessnumberoffamily membersin
householdstocolect wild mushrooms.The
studyalsoindicatedthatdistancefrom market
hasanegativecorrelationwithbothcashand
subsistenceincomefrom NTFPs,althoughthe
relationshipbetweendistancefrom marketand
cashincomeisnon灢significantcomparedtothe
highlysignificantrelationshipbetweendistance
frommarketandsubsistenceincomefromNTF灢
Ps(Table3).Thisshowsthatthevilagesnear
toamarketarelessdependentonNTFPsfor
subsistenceascomparedtoremotevilages,pos灢
siblyduetoalocationofmoretimetoagricul灢
tureactivities,lowratioofmigrationinsummer
topasturesandtheavailabilityofalternatives.
Thepresentstudyisinlinewiththefindingsof
AngelsenandWunder(2003);DeZoyzaandIn灢
oue(2008).TheyobservedthattheNTFPs,
havingamediumorlowreturntolabour,low
capitalorskilrequirementandopenorsemi灢
openaccess,favourstheeconomyofpoorpeople
whohavenoaccesstomarkets.Thecontribu灢
tionofNTFPstocashincomeincreasesgreatly
withthedistancefromthemarket.Thereason
maybethatwiththeincreaseinincomefromother
profitableactivitieslikecashcropgrowing,wage
employmentandself灢employmentandthedepend灢
enceonlabourintensiveactivitieslikemushroom
andmedicinalplantscolectiondecreases.
Fig灡4暋Contributionofdifferentcomponentsof
NTFPstogrossNTFPsincome
暋暋Theresult(Table4)alsoshowsthattheo灢
veraldependenceonNTFPsforsubsistenceuse
isslightlyhigherinricherhouseholdsascom灢
paredtopoorhouseholds.Thericherhouseholds
tendtouseaslightlyhigherquantityoffire灢
wood,fodder,leaflitterandwildfruitsascom灢
paredtopoorerhouseholds.Thereisnosignifi灢
cantrelationshipbetweenthetotalincomeof
householdsandNTFPsuseforbothcashand
subsistenceincome,butthetotalcashincomeof
householdshowsanon灢significantnegativerela灢
tionshipwithsubsistenceincomefrom NTFPs
use.Thetotalexpenditureofthehousehold
showsapositiverelationshipwithNTFPsuse,
3712期暋暋HassanSheretal灡:ConstraintsandOpportunitiesforSustainableLivelihoodsandCashIncome...暋暋暋
Table3暋AveragecontributionofdifferentcomponentsofNTFPstohousehold曚sannual
subsistenceandcashincomesbyvilages(Rs.)
NTFPsincome Mingora Khwazakhela Kalam Overal
Subsistenceincome
Firewood 14465 11606 11067 12323
Fodder 6972 8008 4821 6426
Wildvegetables 123 201 40 113
Fruits(walnutonly) 257 644 1023 666
Torchwood 524 812 890 749
Agriculturalimplements 134 147 152 145
Furnitureandotherhouseholduse 255 174 279 241
Thatchingmaterial 542 499 227 407
Litter 0 0 468 183
Total 23272 22091 18967 21253
Cashincome
Mushrooms 1820 1842 316 1239
Medicinalplants 153 2326 0 712
Fruits(walnutsonly) 859 327 2220 1240
Rentfrompastures 0 116 415 195
Total 2832 4611 2951 3386
Table4暋AveragecontributionofdifferentcomponentsofNTFPstohousehold曚sannual
subsistenceandcashincomebywealthquartiles(Rs.)
NTFPsuse Lowest25% 25%-50% 50%-75% Top75% Overal
Subsistenceuse
Firewood 11879 12191 12293 12905 12323
Torchwood 525 1052 791 615 749
Agriculturalimplements 158 135 145 142 145
Furnitureandotherminoruses 198 240 245 281 241
Thatcvhinggrass 317 408 451 482 407
Litter 152 196 154 229 183
Fodder 5526 5376 7106 7633 6426
Wildvegetables 96 113 122 120 113
Wildfruits(orchardsonly) 181 258 675 1526 666
Total 19032 19969 21982 23933 21253
Cashincome
Mushrooms 861 1511 1310 1251 1239
Medicinalplants 2694 118 26 132 712
Rent 108 319 189 160 195
Orchards(walnutonly) 580 1417 956 1978 1240
Total 4243 3365 2481 3521 3386
non灢significantincaseofcashincomeandhighly
significantforsubsistenceincome (Table5).
ThesefindingsfavourtheobservationofAdhik灢
hari(2001).Whoreportedthatricherhouse灢
holdshavemoreaccesstotheutilizationoffor灢
estresourcesincludingNTFPscomparetothe
poormembersofthesocietyinmountainousare灢
asofHindu灢Kush灢Himalayacountries.
3灡7暋Householdsize
Householdsizeshowedapositiverelation灢
shipwiththeNTFPsuseforbothcashandsub灢
sistenceincomegeneration.Therelationshipis
non灢significantforcashincomewhilehighlysig灢
nificantforsubsistenceincome (Table5).A
householdwithalargerlabourforcecanmobilise
householdlabourinforestextractionactivities
thanhouseholdswithasmalerlabourforce.
Thereappearsnorestrictiononthenumberof
peoplethateachhouseholdcanalocatetohar灢
vestforestproducts.Inthisscenario,house灢
471暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋 暋暋暋暋暋暋暋云暋南暋植暋物暋研暋究暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋第32卷
holdswithmorememberstendtocolectalarger
portionofsuchproducts.Furthermore,theedu灢
cationalleveloftheheadofhouseholdshows
negativenon灢significantrelationshipwithuseof
NTFPsforbothcashandsubsistenceincome.
Thetotalnumberofeducated membersina
householdalsoshowsnon灢significantnegative
relationshipwithuseofNTFPsforcashincome
generationbutshowsapositiverelationshipwith
NTFPsuseforsubsistence(Table5).Thepres灢
entfindingsagreewiththestudiesofGunatilake
(1998);Adhikhari(2001);Imangetal灡(2008),
theyconcludedthattheeducationallevelofthe
familyisnegativelyrelatedtoforestdependen灢
cy.However,someoftheunemployededucated
membersofthehouseholdsandeveneducated
membersoffamilyinvolvedinNTFPscolection
forsubsistenceaspartoftheirroleinthehouse灢
hold.
Landholdingandlivestockownershipare
significantlypositivelyassociated withuseof
NTFPsforbothcashandsubsistenceincome
(Table5).Thisimpliesthathouseholdswitha
largenumberoflivestockandbiggerlandhold灢
ingaremoreinclinedtouseNTFPsforboth
cashandsubsistenceincome.Thehouseholds
withbiggerlandholdingscolect morehumus
fromtheforestformanuringagriculturalfields
andusemorewoodformakingagriculturalim灢
plements.Moreover,seasonalmigrationtosummer
pasturesisanimportantaspectofthehouse灢
holdsinthestudyareaandshowsasignificant
positiverelationshipwithNTFPsuseforboth
cashandsubsistenceincome(Table5).
3灡8暋ThesafetynetroleofNTFPsatthehouse灢
holdlevel
AheavyrelianceonNTFPswasreportedin
studyareaintimesofnaturalcatastrophessuch
asheavysnowfal,droughtandfloodsduring
summer.DependenceonalNTFPsincreasesin
winterduetoheavysnowfal restrictingthe
movementofthehousehold.Someofthehouse灢
holdswerefoundselingtheirshareinoakfor灢
estsforanamountrangingfromRs.25000to
Rs.30000togetcashincomeincaseofemer灢
gencieslikeseriousilnessoffamilymembers,
topursuedailyactivities.Themajorityofhouse灢
holdshavelimitedaccesstocashincome,partic灢
ularlythevilageswhicharedistantfrommarket
andnotaccessiblebyroad.Themagnitudeof
thecashsavingmaybemoreimportantforpoo灢
rerhouseholdsduetotheirlowtotalincome.
CommercializationofsomeNTFPslikewalnut
andmorelmushroomsalsofunctionasasafety
netandlivelihoodoptions.Similarresultswere
alsoreportedbyShackeletonandShackeleton,
(2003)andSheretal灡(2004b),whoidentified
twolevelsatwhichNTFPsprovidesafetynetsfor
householdprovisioning.FirstistheroleofNTFPs
asan“emergencynet暠inassistinghouseholds
Table5暋Correlationofselectedsocio灢economiccharacteristicsoftherespondents
againstcashandsubsistenceincomefromNTFPs
Socio灢economicfactors
CashincomefromNTFPs
R P灢value
SubsistenceincomefromNTFPs
R P灢value
Accesstomarket -0灡080 0灡163 -0灡310** 0灡000
Subsistenceincome 0灡090 0灡273 0灡112 0灡085
Cashincome 0灡012 0灡879 -0灡078 0灡343
Expenditure 0灡008 0灡464 0灡197** 0灡008
Householdsize 0灡144 0灡079 0灡291** 0灡000
EducationofHeadofHH -0灡139 0灡088 -0灡102 0灡213
Householdeducation -0灡043 0灡603 0灡029 0灡363
Off灢farmemployment -0灡090 0灡271 0灡002 0灡491
Landholding 0灡228** 0灡005 0灡372** 0灡000
Numberoflivestock 0灡225** 0灡005 0灡349** 0灡000
Seasonalmigration 0灡206* 0灡011 0灡349** 0灡000
(*P<0灡05,**P<0灡01)
5712期暋暋HassanSheretal灡:ConstraintsandOpportunitiesforSustainableLivelihoodsandCashIncome...暋暋暋
inadversitysuchasshocksandsuddenchanges
inthesocio灢economicenvironment.Secondly,
theordinarydailyuseofNTFPsasa“dailynet暠
alowsthe directcostsaving amongstrural
households.
4暋Conclusion
Inlightofthepresentstudy,itcanbecon灢
cludedthat(1)NTFPsarethemainsourcesof
livelihoodcapitalinthemountainousareas,es灢
pecialySwat,ofnorthernPakistan.(2)Over
exploitationofthesenaturalforestresourceswas
duetoincreaseddemandfortheseproductsin
thegrowingnationalandinternationalmarkets.
(3)Furtherlossesofthesenaturalresources
mightadverselyaffectthepoorruralcommuni灢
tiesinthereareasthroughanegativeimpacton
thesocio灢economic,culturalandenvironmental
conditions.
Thestudy,therefore,recommendthedevelop灢
mentoftheseareascanbebroughtaboutthrough
sustainablelivelihoodsapproachfocusingonalas灢
pectsofresourcemanagement,whichisacomplex
webofinterrelatedecological,socio灢economic,
culturalandpoliticalfactors.
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671暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋 暋暋暋暋暋暋暋云暋南暋植暋物暋研暋究暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋暋第32卷