全 文 ：Sustainable Utilization and Economic Development of Some
Plant Resources in Northern Pakistan
?
Hassan Sher
1
, M Ajaz
2
, Hazrat Sher
3
( 1 Department of Botany, Goverment Postgraduate J ahanzeb College, Suidu Sharif , Swat, Pakistan;
2 Department of Pharmacy, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan;
3 Department of Botany, Kohat University of Scienceand Technology, Kohat, Pakistan)
Abstract: Overshadowed by thevast impact that habitat loss has on targeted plant species survival , it is easy to overlook
the fact that utilization and harvesting of species can often result in their genetic depletion and in an often rapid downward
trend of their population status . In this regard an ethnobotanical study on the medicinal plants of Shawar valley, District
Swatwas conducted with the aims to document medicinal plants and to examine the current status of the medicinal plants
trade as well as themarket chain startingfrom collectors to consumers . The survey reported 50 species of plants belonging
to33 families as ethnomedicinally important . These species were used as crud drugs by the local people and folk-lore for
treating diseases in traditional system of medicine . Thedetailed local uses, recipe preparation along with their local names
and diseases treated were recorded for each species .
Market survey revealed that the structure of medicinal plant trade is complex and heterogeneous, involvingmany players .
Thecollectorsareoften not awareof thehighmarket prices andmedicinal values, andmost of thecollectedmaterial is sold to lo-
cal middlemen at avery low price . Therewas an increaseof 3 to 5 folds in prices fromcollectors to thenational market .
Recommendations were given in the spheres of training sustainable harvesting and post harvesting of wild medicinal
plant resources, trade monitoring, equitable sharingof benefits of wild resources, improved control on harvesting and trade
for the conservation of resources, enhancement of cultivation efforts, future research into trade in wild harvested plants,
community participation in natural resourcemanagement andvalueaddition in the herbal products to maximizethe benefits .
Key words: Shawar Valley; Sustainable harvesting; Plant resources; Market study
CLC number : Q 948 Document Code : A Article ID: 0253 - 2700 (2007) 02 - 207 - 08
Introduction
Thestudy area“Shawar Valley”is located at adis-
tance of about 39 kilometers from Mingora towards
North-West of District Swat . Topographically the area is
rugged mountainous and varying in elevation from1 200
mat Sigram to 3 600 m at Chotasar peak . It lies be-
tween the Himalayan and the Hindu Kush foothills .
Due to its geographical locationwithin themonsoon belt
villagers of thelower part of the area are surrounded by
fruit trees, the fields on either side of the water canal
and road are full of wheat and Lucerne . In upper part
of thevalley, mountains and alpine ecosystems prevail
with conifer forests and snow coped peaks . According-
ly, thevalley gives home to vast diversity of useful pla-
nts, among those edible plants, spices and medicinal
and aromatic plants are common .
Population of the valley is about 40 000 with a
density of 200 persons per sq . km, and growth rateof
3 .48 ( 1998 ) census . Most of the population of the
study site depends upon agriculture, forest and live
stock rearing . Some are Government servants, small
businessmen, petty workers in middle east and a few
work as paid labour . It occupies the floristically rich
southern extension of Hindu Kush Raj of the Hindu
Kush mountain range .
The diversity of climate and geographic locations
for plant growth signify the phytogeographic regions of
which there are three i . e . I ) Sino-Japanese regions
having II ) Irano-Turanian in theNorth-North West and
III ) Saharo-Sindian regions in the South . ( Ali and
Qaiser, 1986) .
Traditionally forests and rangelands are the main
sources of medicinal plants in Pakistan . These plants
occur naturally in the forests and pastures of Swat dis-
trict and areused as a basis formodern pharmaceuticals
and, therefore, are commonly exploited commercially .
Since these plants usually occur in wild formand have
been collected from the forest for decades ( Khan,
云 南 植 物 研 究 2007 , 29 (2) : 207～214
Acta Botanica Yunnanica

? ?Received date: 2006 - 03 - 08 , Accepted date: 2007 - 01 - 26
1985) , their cultivation?ex-situ management has been
neglected in the past; hence no nurseries or protected
areas for commercially exploitedmedicinal plants exists
in Swat .
Secondly, lack of knowledge about the part used
often lead to misuseof thespecies .The appropriatede-
siredplant part of certain age will determine the yield
percentage and quality of therapeutically active ingredi-
ents .
Currently there is little evidence of the conserva-
tion of indigenous medicinal plant species in the study
area . The crude and sometimes untimely gathering of
medicinal plants does little to enhance their survival or
effective population growth, and man’s resulting dom-
estic activities are placing some plant species under
constant threat .
At the present time, a number of barriers exist to
thesustainable cultivation, gathering anduseof medic-
inal plants . These include lack of clear resource tenure
and custodianships, little understanding of sustainable
management parameters and knowledge of market
requirements . These are coupled with inadequate insti-
tutional structures for the management of the dwindling
medicinal plant populations and dearth of techniques,
skills and experience to promote their sustainable use .
The findings might lead to locate ways and means to
identify strategies to improve the management of the
medicinal plant populations of the study area .
Collection and sale of medicinal plants is an im-
portant economic activity in theMalakand division, and
about 5000 families are involved in the collection and
processingof medicinal plants in the region (Sher and
Hussain, 1998a) . The most active members of plants
gathering and processing are women and children from
middlehills .These collectors receive theminimumin the
trade chain of medicinal herbs ( Sher and Shakespear,
2000) .
Income from the gathering and sale of medicinal
plants is thought to bemarginalized by alack of aware-
ness regardinglocal andover seas market requirements .
Local shopkeepers, agents and Hakims, obtain sup-
plies fromindividualswho have little experience in me-
dicinal herbs preparation or in understandingof its val-
ue . As a result valuable economic and medicinal plants
of the investigated site are becoming rare and sparse
and some are at thevergeof local extinction .
The present endeavor was, therefore, carried out
to document the inventory of economic and medicinal
plants along with their local uses, names, part used
and method of recipe preparation . Moreover, to deter-
mine snap shot of the, hitherto unmonitored aspects of
medicinal plant ecology and their socio economic influ-
ences on low incomegroup families .
Materials and Methods
A study on the Ethnobotanical evaluation of economic and
medicinal plants was conducted during summer 2005 in various
parts of Shawar valley, district Swat . The investigated area was
divided into different altitudinal zones with the help of map and
topo sheet . Accordingly frequent visitsweremadeto theareafirst
in April-May, second in June-J uly and third in August 2005 . In-
formation’sand data on various aspects of theplants such as tra-
ditional uses, collectionmethod, timeandmarketingof each spe-
cies in the area were gathered from the local experienced persons
through discussionswith local people . Data on themarket valueof
the plantswas collected fromlocal collectors, shopkeepers (Export
Promotion Bureau Office, Malakand division) . Information’swere
gathered as to how and from whom the plant materials were ob-
tainedand to whom they were sold . Likewise, shopkeepers were
asked about the sources of the plants received by them .
Respondents were also asked about their annual revenues
earned fromthe sale of targeted plants and returned of work in-
vested .
The plants were gathered from different altitude and sites .
Theyweredriedandpreserved properly . Thefullydried specimens
weremounted on herbarium sheets with scotch tape, plants were
identified with the help of available literature (Nasir and Ali ,
1971 - 91 , Stewart, 1972; Begand Khan, 1974 , Beg andSamad,
1974) . The nomenclature was confirmed from National Herbari-
um, NARC , Islamabad . A set of voucher specimensweredeposit-
ed to National Herbarium, NARC , Islamabadand also to the Bot-
any department G . P . G Jahanzeb College Saidu Sharif Swat .
Results
The study revealed that there were total 50 plants
species of ethnomedicinal importance . They were dis-
tributed among 33 families comprisingof 26 dicots fam-
ilies, one monocot family ( Liliaceae) , 3 Gymnosperm
families ( Cupressaceae, Ephedraceae and Pinaceae) ,
while Fungi and Pteridophytes were represented by one
family Helvelaceae and Pteridaceae, respectively .
Among Dicots, family Lamiaceae ( 5 species) followed
by Rosaceae (4 species) , Asteraceae, Fagaceae, Po-
lygonaceae, and Ranunculaceae each with 3 species
were important families . The remaining families had
less than 3 species of Ethnomedicinal importance in the
study area (Table 1) .
802 云 南 植 物 研 究 29 卷
Table 1 Medicinal uses of some medicinal plants of Shawar valley, Swat Pakistan
Family name Botanical name Local name Habit Part used Medicinal uses
Helvelaceae Morchella esculanta L . Prs ex Fr . Guchii Sap FB Body Tonic & food
Pteridaceae Dryopteris juxtapostia Christ Kwanjay H Ys Enhancedigestion
Cupressaceae J uniperus excelsa Brand Shahroos T L Evil eyes, and gods .
Ephedraceae Ephedra gerardiana Wall Someni S S Hay fever and cold .
Pinaceae Cedrus deodara ( Rox . ex lamb) D . Don Diar T Res Urticaria & other skin diseases .
Liliaceae Alliumhumile Kunth Palan H WP Vomiting and headache .
Liliaceae ColchicumluteumBaker Chunar phund H Corm Joints pain .
Liliaceae Frittelaria roylei Hook . f Chor H Rh General body tonic .
Apiaceae BuniumpersicumL Zera H Se Carminative
Araliaceae Hedera nepalensis Kock Zelai Cli WP Diabetes .
Asteraceae Artemisia maritima L . Loam H WP Anthelmentic agent .
Asteraceae Cichorumintybus L Haspa booti H R Body fever and vomiting
Berberidaceae Berberis lyciumRoyle Hees S R Fractured bones & general body tonic .
Caprifoliaceae Viburnumnervosum D . Don Chamiar H Fr Stomach-ache .
Cuscutaceae Cuscuta reflexa Roxb Amol Cli WP Diabetes
Dioscoraceae Dioscorea deltoidea Wall . Kanis Cli Rh Kidney problems
Ebenaceae Diospyrus lotus L Amlok T Fr Dysentery .
Fagaceae Quercus semecarpifolia Sm Meer T Fr General body tonic .
Fagaceae Quercus dilatata Lindle ex Royle Tor banj T Fr General body tonic .
Fagaceae Quercus incana (Husskn) H . N Spin banj T Fr General body tonic .
Geraniaceae GeraniumwallichianumD . Don ex sweat Ratan jok H R Rheumatism .
Hypericaceae Hypericumperforatum L . Shen chai H L Stimulant and carminative
Juglandaceae J uglans regia L . Ghoz T Fr & B Brain tonic & teeth cleaning .
Lamiaceae Ajuga bracteosa Wall ex Bth Phund Kash H WP Fever and vomiting .
Lamiaceae Mentha longifolia L . Huds Dhoop H L & S Cough and vomiting
Lamiaceae Mentha spicata L . Pudina H L & S Carminative agent .
Lamiaceae Salvia morrcroftiana Wall ex Bth Khardag H L & S Aphrodiasic agent .
Lamiaceae Thymus serphyllum L Kanesh H WP Fever, cough and cold .
Pappilionaceae Indigofera heterantha L . Kese S R Headache and chest pain
Peaonaceae Paeonia emodi Wall ex HK . f Mameikh H Rh General body tonic .
Podophyllaceae Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Kakorra H Rh Backache and cancer
Polygonaceae Persicaria amplexicauleD . Don Anjabar H Rh General body tonic .
Polygonaceae Rheum emodi Wall Chutial H Rh Kidney stone & kidney problems
Polygonaceae Rumex dentatus L . Ovawol H L Wound Healing
Primulaceae Primula macrophyla D . Don Mammera H Fl Improve eyesight, & control eyediseases .
Ranunculaceae Aconitun chasmanthum Stapf ex Hamlex Zaharmora H Rh Tonic
Ranunculaceae Aconitumheterophyllum Wall Zaharmora H Rh Tonic
Ranunculaceae Calthea alba Jacq . Maspal H L Wound healing
Rosaceae Prunus armeniaca L . Khubani T Fr Laxative and purgative
Rosaceae Rosa webbiana Wall Phalol S Fr Antispasmodic agent
Rosaceae Rubus fruticosus L . Ach Karwarra H Fr Iimprove digestion
Rosaceae Sorboria tomentosa L Beree S Inf Atiseptic agent & skin rashes
Rutaceae Skimmea laureola ( DC) Sieb and Zucc Namer H L Expel evils and evil eyes
Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata ( Haw) Sternb Badmia H R Blood purifier .
Scrophullariaceae Verbascumthapsus L . Khar ghwag H L Antiseptic agent .
Solanaceae Hyoscymus niger L . Shamala H Se Toothache .
Urticaceae Urtica dioca L . Jon H WP Urticarcia .
Valerianaceae Valeriana jatamansi Jones Mashkebala H Rh Epilepsy
Violaceae Viola serpens Wall Kotan pel H WP Eyedisesese
Key: Habit: Cli — Climber; H — Herb; S — Shrub; T — Tree; Part used: B — Bark; Fr — Fruits; FB — Fruiting Bodies; Fl — Flowers;
Inf — Infloresence; L — Leaves; Rh — Rhizomes; Res — Resin; S — Stem; Se — Seeds; WP — Whole Plant; Ys — Young shoot;
9022 期 Hassan Sher et al .: Sustainable Utilization and Economic Development of Some Plant Resources . . .
The study indicated that the reported medicinal
plants are locally used in traditional system of medi-
cines for curing various health disorders . Some plants
are used singly whilemanyothers areused in combina-
tion with other plants or edible items . Similarly few
plants species are considered for the treatment of only
one specific disease while several other have multiple
such uses . Following is thedescriptionof local medici-
nal uses long with local names, part used, family and
botanical name of medicinal plants in the area .
Market study
The present study revealed that Mingora is the
main trade centers for many medicinal plants in Mala-
kand division and this city supply considerable quanti-
ties of plants to various national trading centers of Paki-
stan including Peshawar, Islamabad, Lahore and Kara-
chi and also abroad . Figure1 shows thedirect linkages
in themarket channels between thevarious herbal mar-
kets in Malakand Division and national level . Mingora
receives material from different areas of harvest includ-
ing thestudy areas, whileLahoreherbal market acts as
themajor center of trade in the country receiving im-
ported material fromabroad and fromthe country sourc-
es . The plants under study were sent to various trade
centers in the country either directly or through inter-
mediary markets .
In district Swat, the trade and collection of me-
dicinal plants are highly uncoordinated and vary from
area to area and species to species . For obtaining pla-
nts fromthe study area, thedealers fromnational mar-
kets send representatives to local dealers in Mingora
and put their demand . The local dealers pass themes-
sage to their agents, i . e . the local shopkeepers of the
valley . These agents informsmall shopkeepers and col-
lectors . The collectors gather the species for the local
shopkeepers and agents . The collectors are illiterate
and do not negotiate for theprice of theplant materials
and gather sizeable quantities but do not receive rea-
sonable returns . Thedealers of Mingoraget themateri-
al fromthe agents when that is ready . In this way the
medicinal plants pass through threeor four hands (Fig-
ure 1) . Some times daily wages labourers for Rs . 100
- 150 per day are employedby thelocal agents for plant
collection but this is not usual .
It is generally observed that in the surveyed val-
ley , the local agent ( middleman) receives handsome
returns . The local shopkeepers or other persons acting
Figure 1 Market channels from collection sites and other areas to
local , national and international markets .
as agents of the traders of the regional herbal markets
are themajor buyers fromthe local collectors . It is also
observed that the local wholesalers control prices infor-
mation to the collectors which has enabled themto ma-
intain high profits .
The export of crude herbal items of the selected
species to different countries is largely through individ-
ual and local exporters in Joddia Bazzar, Karachi and
Akbari Mandi , Lahore . The selected species are cur-
rently exported to Germany, Japan, France, Switzer-
land, MiddleEast, India and South Africa .
Exient of trade from the valleys
The present study indicated that Viola serpens ( 5
m. tons) , Valeriana jatamansi (1 . 3 m. tons) and Per-
sicaria amplexicaule ( 2 m. tons) . were collected in
reasonably great quantities fromthesurveyed areas each
year during 2004 - 2005 and sold in theherbal markets
of Mingora . Thepresent assessed takeout thevalleys is
not based on the optimumexploitation of these species
in thetargetedvalley . Market demand for most of these
species seems more than the existing supply and simi-
larly, the potential of supply can be quite higher than
thepresent takeout . Thedifference is dueto uncoordi-
nated demand and supply and unawareness about the
012 云 南 植 物 研 究 29 卷
availability of certain species and their demand in the
market .
Among the selected plants species the most valu-
able is Viola serpens locally priced at Rs . 200?kg fol-
lowed by Valeriana jatamansi at Rs . 150?kg, and Per-
sicaria amplexicaule at Rs . 90?kg . The prices of each
species vary fromyear to year and also depend on de-
mand and supply .
Based on thequantities takenout fromthestudyar-
eain year 2005 and 2004 and the prices obtained at the
collector level , the total revenuewas about Rs . 0.7 mil-
lion . Themoney generated fromthe tradeof the economic
andmedicinal plants inMalakanddivisionis about Rs .20
millions . The targeted species has nearly 3.5 percent
share in the total revenueof Malakand division .
The present study also indicated that the house-
hold collection ranged from12 kg to 150 kg per house
hold . The collectionof targeted species was taken as an
important activity by about 315 households . Assuming
that total 35 days were involved in the harvesting and
collection of target plants and that about 1.7 persons
were involved per household, the total employment
generated by the activity comes to about 15 500 person
daysper year includingport rage . Average collection in
the 315 households is over 100 kg per year . In 2005?
2004 , this meant net revenue of Rs . 1500 per house
hold . Households in the study area reported earnings
between Rs . 1500 to Rs . 2000 per year from the sale
of selected species .
The present endeavor also estimated that the total
beneficiaries fromthe targeted plants trade in the study
area may number 405 house holds . The number of
house holds of various categories of beneficiaries and
the income distribution was presented in Table 2 .
In terms of per household benefits, the village
trader appeared as the largest beneficiary . However,
trading was a full time activity for much of the year .
Also the agent ( middlemen) received a higher propor-
tion of the income after marketing theproduce directly . ?
Price fluctuations of species at collector level and
beyond
The present study evaluated that the price of the
plants gradually increases from collector to local , na-
tional and international markets at each step in the
chain (Table 3) . Theprice was lowest at the collectors
level and increasing many fold from collectors to the
national markets and abroad . However, while guessing
at the increaseof the price fromthe collector level and
beyond, it may be kept in mind that considerable
weight of the plant material is lost during drying,
cleaning, processing, grading, packing etc . at each
level when value is added to the material . This weight
loss varies from species to species and the modes of
processing for sale .
Table 2 Income distribution from the trade of targeted
plants in Shawar, Swat during 2002 - 2004 .
Beneficaries
Number
of House
hold
Gross
Income
( Rs)
Percent of
Total gross
Income ( % )
Gross Income
per house
hold ( Rs)
Collector Households 315 F2000 ?20 400 p
Porter households 50 4100 z3 ?400 p
Village trader households 20 4500 z11 ?1000
Middlemen agent 20 4800 z15 ?1500
Total 405 F3400 ?49 3300
Oneof the reasons for the low price at collector’s
level was their unawareness of thepriceof theplants in
the trademarkets .
Investment of work by collectors
The timespentwas basedon the relative availabili-
ty of the species with respect to the distance and the
characteristicsof the plant parts . Normally 4 - 8 hours
work in 3 - 4 kmdistancewas required to gather abun-
dle of roots of 40 - 50 kg of the plants like Persicaria
amplexicaule and Valeriana jatamansi . The flowers of
Viola serpens required 6 - 8 hours in 3 - 4 kmto collect
one kg of flowers . (Table 4)
Eachspecies is collectedmanually throughhigh labour
cost as compared to other daily activitiesof the locals, and
the collectors get very less money for their labour .
Table 4 indicates that thepopulationof theselect-
ed species has been reduced more than half in the last
20 to 30 years . Thelocal people traveledone totwo km
Table 3 Average price in Rs . per kg of plants at different market points .
S ?.N Botanical name
Collection
month
Demand trend
Collector rate
Rs . per kg
Markets rate in Rs . per kg
Local market Whole sale National International
1 ?Persicaria amplexicaule May September Increases 90 120 150 200 300 d
2 ?Valeriana jatamansi May September Increases 150 200 300 350 500 d
3 ?Viola serpens March May Increases 200 250 350 500 1000 w
1122 期 Hassan Sher et al .: Sustainable Utilization and Economic Development of Some Plant Resources . . .
Table 4 Work investment for collection of targeted plants in Shawar Valley .
Name of Plants
Distance Traveled ( km)
Present 20 ?Years ago
Time Spent ( h)
Present 20 Years ago
Form of matarid sold
Persicaria amplexicaule 2 ?1 z3 Y- 4 1 E- 2 Fresh
Valeriana jatamansi 3 ?1 z4 Y- 5 2 E- 3 Fresh
Viola serpens 3 b- 4 2 z6 Y- 8 3 E- 4 Fresh
for the collectionof somequantity ( 50 kgof rhizomesof
Valeriana jatamansi and Persicaria amplexicaule an-
done kg flower?leaves of Viola sepens) of thespecies in
thepast and now they traveled 2 to 4 kmfor the same
quantity . Similarly they use to spend one to 4 h, 20 -
30 years ago and now they spend 3 to 8 h for the same
collections .
Resultantly the collectors lose their interest which
causes shortageof supply to the end user . Some collec-
tors add various adulterants to increase thequantity . In
one example, in Viola serpens in aquarter of the leaves
three quarters of the adulterants were added including
leaves of other plants, petioles and even pebbles ( per-
sonal observation) . When the supply is not ensured
and thepharmaceutical companies do not get thequali-
ty products, the national market encourages the import
of the plants .
Collectors involved
The information at the local level had shown that
in the study area children were the main collectors
(50% ) followed by women ( 30% ) , afghan refugees
men ( 15% ) and local men ( 5% ) .
Discussion
Medicinal plants are an important source of drugs
in traditional system of medicine ( Sher and Hussian,
1998a; Sher et al . 2005) . They are used locally as a
crude drug for the treatment of human and live stock
health care since time immemorial . Even today, they
are themain sourceof traditional health care especially
in the remote hilly areas . The present investigation re-
ported 50 plants species used by the local in indigenous
system of medicine for the curing of various diseases .
Most of thespecieswere used for curingvarious diseas-
es such as stomachic, dysentery, fever and rheumatic
pain . Similarly results were also reported by Arshad
and Akram (1999) , who reported few plants speciesof
varied health care from Rawalpindi . However, their
documented plants were different fromthoseof our pla-
nts used for same purposes . It was also observed that
some plants had singlemedicinal usewhile many other
species had multiple such uses . Kamali and Khalifa
(1997 ) , reported that 15 different medicinal plants
wereused for the curing of malaria in the central Su-
dan . Sher et al . ( 2005 ) , also observed that most of
thewild medicinal plants were frequently used for the
curing of constipation, diarrhoea and dysentery by the
hill side dwellers of district Swat, Pakistan .
Market study
The market information revealed that district Swat
is the collection and trading centre for many medicinal
plants . It has a well-established market which supplies
sizeable quantities of targeted plants to various trading
centers of Pakistan and abroad . Khan (1985) and Zai-
di (1998) also reported that majority of marketableme-
dicinal plants are collected fromNorthern areas of Paki-
stan including Swat . Thepresent study noticed that the
structure of medicinal plant trade is complex involving
many players in the study area . The middlemen who
purchase material from collectors sell this either to
small shops in the region or to regional middlemen or
agents of large dealers, and through this chain of mid-
dlemen the material reaches the wholesale dealers of
large cities . Wholesalers supply the plant materials
then to retailersor pharmaceutical companiesor export-
ers . In this chain the wholesalers earn more as com-
pared to others . The price may go quite high as the
drug moves fromthe collectors to international market .
Similarly Khan ( 1998 ) , Sher and Hussain ( 1998a)
and Sher et al . (2000) also reported that themiddle-
men and wholesalers earn a lot of profit from medicinal
plants, therefore, when theplants reach to the interna-
tional market, their price become double or tripled .
The present study also observed that the prices of tar-
geted plants increase3 to5 folds fromcollectors to local
dealers, which may further be doubledor tripled at na-
tional markets .
It was also observed that themedicinal plant trade
in Pakistan ingeneral anddistrict Swat in particular, is
largely in the unorganized private sector with very little
state control . Often the plant species which are rare or
threatened are collected without any check, therefore,
212 云 南 植 物 研 究 29 卷
causing biodiversity loss and depletion of wild natural
resources . The targeted plant species are collected from
the wild of the study areaon what is apparently a first-
come, first-servebasis . There is no management struc-
ture tied to the harvesting of resources at present .
Therefore, collection volume is muchmore and beyond
their regeneration rate . Similar observations were also
reported by Cunningham et al . ( 1998 ) and Lange
(1998 ) . They stated that the trade and collection of
plant materials is mostly handled by unskilled persons .
As a result valuable medicinal plants are damaged due
to lack of scientific methods of collection . Secondly
over-extraction, destructive harvesting techniques and
habitat loss are severe threats to medicinal and aromatic
plants in Europe and same is true for our study area . It
was also discovered that collectors now have to put
more efforts and to walk longer distances to collect the
same materials of targeted plants when compared to
twenty years ago .
The present study also revealed that with the in-
crease in elevation and remoteness of the area within
the study valley, of the involvement of children and
women in thecollectionof , and dependenceonmedici-
nal plants increased . This agrees with the studies of
Khan (1998 ) , and SDC?IC ( 1999 ) who reported that
women and children usually gather medicinal plants as
apart timebusiness, in thenorthern areasof Pakistan .
The natural regenerationof economically important
medicinal plants is adversely affected by deforestation,
over grazing, unabated urbanization and by their unau-
thorized collection in the study area . This agree with
Beg and Khan ( 1974 ) , Hussain et al . ( 1996 ) and
Hussain and Sher ( 1998b) , they reported that unsus-
tainable modeof medicinal plants collection and habitat
loss has put the conservation status of many medicinal
plants at risk in District Swat .
The present study, therefore, recommended that
conservationmeasurewith the participationof local com-
munities should be taken to conserve and restore thede-
graded habitat of medicinal plant resources . The fore-
most important thing is to increase awareness among the
local inhabitants of Shawar Valley, Swat, that they are
theprotectors of thesevital indigenous resources, which
can be exploited for several useful purposes .
Recommendations
Medicinal plants are the source of sustained in-
come, provided efforts are made to stream line the re-
generation protection and extraction of medicinal plants
on proper scientific lines . Collection of medicinal pla-
nts carried out by the collectors may be streamlined in
such amanner so as to provide ample regeneration time
to the plants keeping their optimum time of growth in
view . The area once used for collection may be de-
clared as protected area and collectionmay be debarred
for a period of 2 to 4 years .
Over exploitation, habitat loss, destructive har-
vestingtechniques and lowmonetary returnof themate-
rials are among the most important problems at collec-
tor′s level . Collectors are not aware of the proper har-
vesting time and methods and as a result cause damage
to the resource base . Secondly, over exploitation and
habitat changes, due to the human population increase
across most parts of the study area, have eroded the
targeted plant population level . In the last three de-
cades there has been a steady degradation of the rich
floral landscape of the region .
The study recommend that in order to have an ef-
fective natural resource management and sustainable
utilization programme, it is extremely important to en-
sure that the benefits of the resources are fairly shared
with the communities, who are the real owners of the
resources . The senseof ownership canonly begenerat-
ed when the communities at large sees the benefits
coming fromthe resource, not only for them, but also
for their next generations . Non equitable and exploited
benefit sharingoften lead to un-sustainable practices .
With the growing interest in medicinal plants,
both in the country and abroad, it is necessary to de-
velop a long term strategy to conserve and sustainable
harvest these plant products . There is also a need for
both community based efforts andbetter state control on
the harvesting and trade of medicinal plants to enable
the conservation of the resource base . An alternative
source of income through cultivation should begenerat-
ed for the community, thereby preserving precious wild
plant resources .
The study also suggests that oneor two years pro-
tected area have an increased quantity and diversity of
medicinal plants . The study, therefore, recommended
rehabilitation?recovery practices of the present work in
order to enhance restoring of vegetation in general and
medicinal plants wealth in particular . Furthermore, it
is also necessary to establish management and conser-
vation areas of adequate size in the natural habitats of
3122 期 Hassan Sher et al .: Sustainable Utilization and Economic Development of Some Plant Resources . . .
medicinal plants with the participation of local commu-
nities .
In case of species that are threatened, clear
guidelines should be developed and annual quotas of
plant parts which may be collected should be clearly
established, and made known to all concerned parties
and stakeholders . A proper mechanism of the imple-
mentationof collectionquotasshould be designed to en-
force the conservation and management efforts .
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