全 文 ：The Cultivation of Truffles in Italy
Bencivenga Mattia
?
, Di Massimo Gabriella, Donnini Domizia, Baciarelli Falini Leonardo
( Department of Applied Biology, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy)
Abstract: In order to provide a general picture of Italian truffle-growing . We done two parts work . ( 1) The evolution
which thecultivationof truffles has undergone in Italy right fromits beginning; (2) Thecurrent situation includingthe unit-
ary productions recorded in the cultivated truffle-grounds .
Key words: Italy; Truffles; Cultivation
CLC number : S 646 Document Code : A Article ID: 0253 - 2700 ( 2009) Suppl.ⅩⅥ- 021 - 08
The Evolution of truffle-growing in Italy
We can pinpoint four different periods in Italian
truffle-growing:
First period ( up to 1800 ) : This period corre-
sponds to the empirical cultivation, which is carriedout
by sowing the seeds of the fruiting bodies: the period
ends round about 1800 when the dependenceof truffles
on superior plants is detected (Mannozzi-Torini , 1956;
Ceruti , 1990) . In 1564 , Alfonso Ciccarello, a doctor
fromBevagna (Perugia, Italy) , describes truffle culti-
vation in the following way:“ I would take the truffles
alongwith the freshly dug earth, I would cut them up
intosmall pieces and I would mix themwith the earth,
then I would bury everything in a suitable placeduring
the autumn and I would sprinkle the place again and
again with a decoction of truffles, so that the earth in
that place would gather the generative strength in the
best possibleway, and in this manner I could be sure
that the truffles would sprout” ( Ciccarello, 1564 ) . If
we disregard themagical pieceof advice about the spri-
nkling with a decoction of truffles, the distribution of
spores at the timeof transplanting in the fieldof mycor-
rhized plants and in the not very productive truffle-
grounds is a practice which is recommended even to-
day, as we shall see later on .
Second period (1810-1930 ) : The cultivation of
truffles was attempted by sowing the so-called“ truffle
acorns”, that is to say acorns produced fromoaks-trees
which produce truffles . Unlike what was taking place
in France, thedirect sowingof thetruffle acorns in Ita-
ly did not have an analogous evolution for various rea-
sons: in the truffle areas agriculturewas very poor and
the farmers were forced to cultivateall available land in
order to be able to survive, and also because the few
rare attemptshad not beensuccessful .Thisperiod ends
when Francolini ( 1919 , 1931 ) introduces the truffle
plant . The author, in fact, sows the truffle acorns in a
nursery and afterwards transfers them to the field
(Mannozzi-Torini , 1970) .
In the first two periods, attention was paid exclu-
sively to the black truffle ( Tuber melanosporum Vit-
tad .) , aspecieswidespread in France, Italy and Spain
and characterized by the formation of“pianelli”( har-
vesting grounds where the grass does not grow) and
thereby easier to detect and harvest (Montacchini and
Caramello Lomagno, 1977; Montacchini et al. , 1972 ,
1977) .
Third period (1931-1985) : Attempts at mycor-
rhization are carried out in order to produce trufflepla-
nts on a large scale (Fassi and Fontana, 1967 , 1969;
Fontana, 1967; Palenzona, 1969; Palenzona et al. ,
1972; Palenzona and Fontana, 1978; Bencivenga,
1982) . The first nurseries producing mycorrhized pla-
nts spring up ( Fig. 2 ) and modern truffle-growing is
launched . The nurseries ( Fig. 1 ) began to produce
mycorrhized plants ( Fig. 2 ) with several species of
symbiont plants and the majority of Italian edible truf-
fles: about thirty different combinations of plant-truffle
云 南 植 物 研 究 2009 , Suppl . ⅩⅥ : 21～28
Acta Botanica Yunnanica
? ?Author for correspondence; E-mail : mbenci@ unipg. it; Tel .: 00390755856417
Fig . 1 Nurseries of mycorrhized plants Fig . 2 Ostrya carpinifolia Scop . X Tuber melanosporumVittad
(Table 1 ) were available . The first truffle-grounds
were planted using above all Tuber melanosporum and
T. magnatum, making the mistake of overrating the
qualityof themycorrhized plant and underrating the en-
vironmental quality of the planting site ( Bencivenga,
2001) . Later on, the cultivation of the Tuber aesti-
vum, Tuber borchii Vittad ., Tuber brumale Vittad .
and Tuber macrosporumVittadwas startedup in the ar-
eas which were unsuitable for the two former species .
In this period, the first ( n°568 of 17?07?1970)
and the second national law ( n°752 of 16?12?1985 )
regarding the truffle were proclaimed ( Legge, 1970;
1985) . In particular, the second law, which repealed
the first one, permits the harvesting and the marketing
only of the following species: Tuber melanosporumVit-
tad . T. aestivum Vittad ., T. aestivum Vittad . unci-
natum ( Chatin) Fischer form, T. brumale Vittad .,
T. brumale Vittad . moschatum Ferri form, T. mese-
ntericum Vittad ., T. macrosporum Vittad ., T. mag-
natumPico and T. borchii Vittad . The trading of other
species of truffle such as Tuber indicum Kooke and
Massee ( China) , Tuber oligospermum (Tulasne et C .
Tulasne) Trappe Terfezia spp ., Tirmania spp . (Afri-
ca) , etc, is illegal .
Fourth period ( 1985-today ) : This period is
characterized by numerous basic and applied researches
which aim at improving the planting and cultivation
techniques of the truffle-grounds, and which are direct-
ed at making theproduction of trufflesmore secure and
abundant .
Attempts at improving the production techniques
of the truffle plants were carried out by Tocci et al .
(1985) who recommendsusing fragmentsof the rootsof
well mycorrhized plants (mother plants) as an inocula-
tion, also allowing a large savingin thenumber of truf-
fleswhich aresacrificed for theproductionof the inocu-
lation . Different inoculation methods are compared
(Zambonelli , 1990 ) and the proposal is put forward to
inoculate young plants obtained by micropropagation,
in order to cultivate genetically homogeneous plants
(Zambonelli et al. , 1989 ) . A different amount of in-
oculation is tried out ( Palenzona et al. , 2001) to help
the initial stage and the extent of the mychorrization .
Some authors ( Pirazzi , 1990; Zambonelli et al. ,
1989) make astab at the cultivation of themyceliumto
use as an inoculation while Lo Bue et al . ( 1990) tries
themychorrizationof adult plantsusing fragmentsof ro-
ots which have already been mycorrhized .
Table 1 Mycorrhized plants (combinations of plant-truffle) produced in ltaly
Symbiotic species T ?.melanosp T ?.magnat T g.aestiv T. borchii T.brumale Symbiotic species T. melanosp T &. magnat T. aestiv T.borchii T. brumale
Quercus pubescens X X X X X P M. nigra X
Q ?. ilex X X X Salix caprea X
Q ?. cerris X X X X S D. alba X
Corylus avellana X X X X Pinus pinea X X X
Ostrya carpinifolia X X X X P M. halepensis X X
Carpinus betulue X X P M. nigra X X
Populus alba X
22 云 南 植 物 研 究 增刊ⅩⅥ
The effortsof thevarious authors took shape in the
current production of plants which are well mycorrhi-
zed, robust and free from pollutant fungi .
In the same period the mycorrhizae produced from
the different species of truffle are studied with the aimof
controlling and certifying the mycorrhized plants . From
themorphological pointof view, themycorrhizaeproduced
fromthe different species of truffle are meticulously de-
scribedbyvarious authors (Granetti , 1994, 1995, Granet-
ti et al., 1995a, b; Bencivenga et al. , 1995a; Zambonel-
li et al., 1993) . To fill up the periods during which the
mycorrhizae are lacking in structuresof adiagnostic inter-
est (spinules, peritrophic mycelium) and thereforeof dif-
ficult recognitionon amorphological basis, immunological
analyses (Zambonelli et al. , 1993, Zambonelli and Poggi
Pollini, 1993) , and more recently biomolecular analyses
(Mello et al. , 1998, 2001; Paolocci et al. , 1995 , 1999,
2001) have been resorted too .
The research done on the mycorrhizae, and the
experienceof various experts in the field, have led to
the drafting of an objective method for morphological
analysis and for the certification of mycorrhized plants
(Bencivenga et al. , 1987 ) which are placed on the
market in Italy .
This research, together with thepossibility of con-
trolling and certifyingthe truffleplants, has encouraged
the nurserymen to certify their plants and the truffle-
farmers to request the mycorrhization certificate . To
conclude, well-mycorrhized truffleplants with a certifi-
cate are almost exclusively bedded out in Italy these
days . Together with the improvement in the mycorrhi-
zed plants, the researchers have felt the need to study
the ecological requirements of the different species of
truffle with the practical aimof identifying the environ-
ments in which to set up the truffle-grounds and creat-
ing potential techniques for cultivating them . Many au-
thors have tried to study theground where truffles grow
spontaneously ( Bragato et al. , 2001; Lulli and Prima-
vera 1995 , 2001; Raglione et al. , 2001 ) while others
have deliberated the vegetational , pedological and cli-
matic aspects of their composition (Bencivenga, 1994;
Bencivenga and Granetti , 1990; Bencivenga et al. ,
1990 , 1992 , 1995b, 1996) .
The resultsof this research permit agood approxi-
mate identificationof the areas suitable for the cultiva-
tion of one or another species of truffle . The sector,
however, needs furthers investigations, especially in
the case of the microflora and the microfauna in the
ground which have not yet been studied enough .
The last field of research, which unfortunately
sees the involvement of only a scanty number of re-
searchers, consists of the study of the cultivation tech-
niques of the truffleplants after they have been placed
for beddingout . It is adifficult research as it isnot al-
ways possible to have at one′s disposal uniformly pro-
ductive truffle-grounds in which to set up an experimen-
tal trial , the theories of which could turn out to be
harmful to that very same truffle ground . Moreover,
working outdoors, it becomes difficult to interpret the
results becausemany external factors intervene, and not
all of themare controllable . Even with these limitations
it is necessary to proceed with the research as it has
been noted that artificial truffle-grounds not subjected to
cultivating interventions yield null productions or pro-
ductions clearly inferior to those cultivated in a suitable
manner . Moreover, it has been observed that numerous
fruit-bearing bodies formin a truffle-ground, but only a
small percentage of them reach maturation: identifying
the cultivation techniques, which could allow a greater
percentage of truffles to grow and ripen, would mean
hugely increasing theproduction of a truffle-ground .
Many experimental trials areunder way inour De-
partment ( Baciarelli Falini et al. , 2000; Baciarelli
Falini and Bencivenga, 2002 ) which, due to various
hitches such as wild animals taking the truffles, have
for the time being provided only incomplete and there-
fore statistically invalid data . Their interpretation,
though, does allow for the possibility of giving indica-
tions, which we find interesting, regarding the cultiva-
tion of the truffle-grounds .
The following trials were carried out:
Irrigation: it has proved to be necessary in the
year of planting to encourage the plants to take root
(Fig. 3) . During the productive stage, periodic irriga-
tions beginning from mid-June until October depending
on the weather conditions, have allowed abundant pro-
32增刊ⅩⅥ Bencivenga Mattia et al . : TheCultivation of Truffles in Italy
ductions of Tuber melanosporumto be obtained even in
the dry years . The abundant irrigations have deter-
mined the substitution of the production of T. mela-
nosporumwith that of Tuber brumale in the soils which
are low in calcium carbonate .
Hoeing : interventions were carried out at a depth
of about ten centimeterson thevegetative renewal of the
plants in April in the case of T. melanosporum, and in
autumn in the caseof T. aestivum . These interventions
proved to bepropitious for creating the ideal conditions
for thegrowth of the fruiting body . The hoeing proved
to be ineffective in very soft soil .
Soil covering : this practice turnedout to beposi-
tive, but it still requires further testing above all in the
choice of the material used to cover the soil (Fig.4 ) .
Covering the“pianelli”(areas without herbaceous vege-
tation where black truffles grow) with a layer of soil ,
which is particularly suitable for the 8 - 10 cm thick
black truffle, allowed excellent productions to be ob-
tained even in the dry and hot years .
Pruning: pruning interventions in winter, but al-
so in summer, do not discourage the production of the
Tuber melanosporumtruffle-grounds (Fig. 5 ) . This fact
is important because it permits a denser planting when
compared to the past, and it also allows for a balanced
shading of the truffle-ground to be maintained . The
residue fromthe summer pruning canbeused as a soil-
coveringmaterial .
Sporal inoculation: the distribution of spores (ma-
ture truffle in the region of two grams per plant) around
the root ball of the young mycorrhized plants at the time
of transplanting encouraged the formation of“pianelli”in
a higher percentage of plants than in the control . Ten
grams of inoculation distributed in thenot very productive
“pianelli”permitted an increase in production .
Weeding: Used only for containing thegrowth of
the shrubs . In the truffle-grounds which tend to be in-
fested by various shrubs, localized weeding is not
harmful to the truffle-ground .
Soil correction: an intervention considered nec-
essary in the cases of an incorrect evaluation of the
suitability of the planting ground: when the pH of the
soil is at the lower limit (7 . 5 - 7 .6) , the addition of 5
- 10 kg?mq of calcium carbonate allowed some Tuber
melanosporum and T. aestivum truffle-grounds to be
made partially productive .
Soil conditioning : When the soil tends to become
compact, the use of soil conditioning can be effective .
This intervention has not been studied very much .
Fertilizations : partial experimental trials withor-
ganic or mineral fertilizers were conducted . We believe
that it is important to dotests on the fertilizations as they
could resolvetheproblemof theprematureproductivede-
pletions observed in some Tuber melanosporum truffle-
grounds . The fertilizations, moreover, could encourage
thegrowth and the ripening of a greater percentage of
the truffles which form in a truffle-ground .
The current situation of Italian truffle-growing
It is estimated that every year in Italy about
120 000 mycorrhized plants are bedded out in about
300 hectares of land . The species which are cultivated
are above all T. melanosporum (80% ) and Tuber aesti-
vum (15% ) . Very few plantations are created which
Fig . 3 Lrrigation Fig . 4 Surface covering
42 云 南 植 物 研 究 增刊ⅩⅥ
Fig . 5 Strong pruning in winter and in summer
have other species of T. magnatum, T. brumale,
T. borchii truffle (5% ) .The average productions which
are obtained in the cultivated truffle-grounds with refer-
ence to the various species of truffle are:
Tuber melanosporum The majority of the truf-
fle-grounds set up in the last fifteen years (about 95% )
areyielding variable productions with regard to the en-
vironment and the cultivating techniques adopted . Pro-
duction ranges froma few kilograms per hectare to more
than 100 kg?hectare (Bencivengae Di Massimo, 2000) .
Tuber magnatum Cultivation is difficult be-
cause it is difficult to recreate suitable environmental
conditions for the fruit-bearing of the Tuber magna-
tum . The plantations set up in suitable environments
began to produce limited quantities ( 2 - 4 kg?hectare)
of truffles after 15 - 20 years of the mycorrhized plants
beingbedded out ( Fig. 6 ) . The beginning of the pro-
ductions occurred with the creation of environmental
conditions suitable for the truffle to be able to bear fruit
( total shading of the ground worked by the symbiont
plants, enriching of the top layers of the soil with or-
ganic material originating fromthe leaves of the symbi-
ont plants and theherbaceous vegetation, good porosity
and softness caused by the activity of the microfauna
and the microflora) .
Fig . 6 Productive trufflebed of Tuber magnatumpico
Tuber aestivum The plantations created in Italy
with thesummer truffle are recent and therefore there is
little productive data . The known productions often
surpass 100 kg?hectare .
T. borchii Pine-woods aimed at the production
of the white truffle have been created in the coastal ar-
eas on extremely sandy ground, even if it has aneutral
52增刊ⅩⅥ Bencivenga Mattia et al . : TheCultivation of Truffles in Italy
or sub-acid pH .
The results are good or excellent . Negative results
wereobtained invery compact soils which are rich in clay .
T. brumale The production of T. brumale oc-
curred in some Tuber melanosporum truffle-grounds
created on soils which tend to be humid and compact
and which are lacking in carbonates . Some plantations
were recently created in soils with these characteristics
using Corylus avellana and Quercus pubescens mycor-
rhized by T. brumale . The plantations are recent and
still unproductive .
Current problems WTBZA first problemto occur
in Italywas theproductionof trufflesof adifferent species
than theonewithwhich thesymbiont plantshad beenmy-
corrhized . In this case it may be a questionof:
a) Use of plants mycorrhized with other truffles;
b) Setting up the truffle-ground in an environment
whichisunsuitablefor thetrufflethatonewishestocultivate .
A secondproblemis represented by the premature
productive depletion of some plantations: the produc-
tion begins, it is often abundant, but after 5 - 10 years
it dries up . This problem has not been solved .
Other problemsderive fromthe lack of experience in
the cultivation of symbiont plants, as we are dealingwith
forest specieswhich havenever beencultivatedin afield:
often the truffle-farmer does not know how to fight against
some parasitical adversities . or he does not know how
symbiont plants react towards some agricultural interven-
tions (for example, pruning, removal of shoots, etc .) .
Conclusions
Italy, because of its geological and orographic
variability, is rich in environments where various spe-
cies of truffle can be successfully cultivated . In fact,
themost valuable species are present in all of the Ital-
ian Regions in the natural state: Tuber magnatum is
gathered in thewholeof the Peninsula ( Fig. 7) ; T . m-
elanosporum in the whole of central-northern Italy and
also in cultivation in the south; T. aestivum and
T. borchii can be found in the whole of the Peninsula
and on the Islands . Truffle-growing, therefore, has
great possibilities for growth and it could constitute an
activity capable of improving the socioeconomic condi-
tions of many populations living in theinner areas, and
of resolving the ecological problems deriving from the
desertion of the land . This kindof agriculture, in fact,
has improved noticeably in the last year because the
following factors have improved:
a) Thepossibilities for evaluatingthe suitabilityof
the environments for the cultivation of truffles;
b) Plants which are definitely well mycorrhized and
which have a mycorrhization certificate are bedded out;
c) The knowledge of cultural techniques to be
used in the truffle-grounds has improved .
Fig . 7 Italy
It is therefore necessary to widen the applied re-
search inorder to make truffle-growingmore secure and
productive: the research must be broadened to identify
withgreater precision the suitability of asoil for truffles
(very little is known about the role of soil microflora
and microfauna) and further testing must be done on
the techniques of cultivating the plants in the field . In
particular, the problems which bother the truffle-grow-
ers faced with a premature depletion of the productive
activity in their truffle-ground must be resolved . In
1988 , during the Second International Congress on the
Truffle (1990 ) , Ceruti , referring to the future targets
of the research, declared:“the target will be to main-
tain the specific mycorrhization in the field and to pro-
mote the conditions for the formation of the Astrocar-
pa”. The target is extremely current also dueto thefact
that in the last 20 years progress in this field has been
somewhat limited . Finallywehope that the applied re-
62 云 南 植 物 研 究 增刊ⅩⅥ
search in the truffle and truffle-growing sector aremoti-
vated, coordinated and widened in order to improve
this agricultural activity which is particularly important
in Italy, a nationwhich has fewplains and alot of hills
and mountains, and where the difficulties faced in tra-
ditional agriculture have brought about a progressive
depopulation and the abandonment of the ex-arable
ground subject to ecological degradation .
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