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Aromatic, Medicinal Plants and Vulnerability of Traditional Herbal Knowledge in a Berber Community of the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco

Aromatic, Medicinal Plants and Vulnerability of Traditional Herbal Knowledge in a Berber Community o



全 文 :Aromaticꎬ Medicinal Plants and Vulnerability of Traditional
Herbal Knowledge in a Berber Community of the
High Atlas Mountains of Morocco
Bernadette Montanari
(Centre for BioCultural Diversityꎬ University of Kentꎬ UK)
Abstract: This article compliments the S18 session (transmission of traditional ecological knowledge and conserva ̄
tion of medicinal plants) at the 13th International Congress of Ethnobiology ( ISE) in Montpellierꎬ France (May
2012). The aim of the article is to provide an insight into the livelihoods of a Berber communityꎬ a village of the
High Atlas Mountains of Moroccoꎬ of the local biodiversity and most importantlyꎬ the prevalent use of medicinal
plants for primary health care. It seeks to demonstrate the value of traditional ecological and herbal knowledge for the
subsistence of the community and emphasises the vital role that family and community connections play for the trans ̄
mission of traditional herbal knowledge within the community.
Key words: Aromatic and medicinal plantsꎻ Berber communitiesꎻ Erosion of traditional herbal knowledgeꎻ Morocco
CLC number: Q 948􀆰 12          Document Code: A          Article ID: 2095-0845(2014)03-388-15
  The Maghreb countries represent important
biodiversity sites and important zones for the conser ̄
vation of plant resources. Owing to its biological di ̄
versityꎬ Morocco is after Turkeyꎬ the second most
biologically diverse country in term of species in the
Mediterranean basin. In Moroccoꎬ there are 162 sites
with high biological diversity and identified for de ̄
velopment as parks or reserves as part of a national
conservation strategy ( Fennaneꎬ 2004). The High
Atlas present a particularly high rate of endemismꎬ
also present in the Middle Atlasꎬ but to a lesser ex ̄
tent in the Rif and the Anti ̄Atlas. The richest sites
for locally endemic species are Ifrane National Parkꎬ
Toubkal National Parkꎬ Jbel Bounacher and Jbel Bou
Iblane where approximately 7 000 species in 920 gen ̄
era and 130 familiesꎬ including an estimated 4 500
species and sub ̄species of vascular plants are found
in the Moroccan flora (Taleb and Fennaneꎬ 2011).
The Toubkal National Park was created in 1942
and is the oldest and most protected park in Morocco
(Lamnouerꎬ 2002). It is set in 38 000 hectares of
the central part of the High Atlasꎬ between the N′
Fiss valley to the West and the Ourika valley to the
East ( 31° 05′N - 07° 50′W). This particular zone
displays the highest summits of North Africa. It is
readily accessibleꎬ frequently explored and the most
picturesque summit of the High Atlas Mountains.
Seven valleys originate from the Toubkal with streams
descending in altitude as they carry snowmelt water
across various altitudinal zones and ecosystemsꎬ be ̄
fore reaching two major river basinsꎬ the Tensift and
Souss. The principal summits of the parkꎬ situated
on the line dividing the watersheds leave towards the
east: the plateau of Tazarhart (3 995 m)ꎬ Ouenkrim
(4 089 m)ꎬ Toubkal (4 167 m)ꎬ Tichki (3 753 m)ꎬ
Azrou Tamadout (3 664 m)ꎬ Aksoual (3 910 m)ꎬ
Bou Iguenouane (3 882 m)ꎬ and Ineghmar (3 892 m).
Many permanent rivers have their origin in the park
areaꎬ and ensure the irrigation of the valleys and the
plains in the piedmont. On the northern flankꎬ the
main rivers are the N′fissꎬ Rherhayaꎬ and Ourikaꎬ
with the Souss on the southern flank. The Toubkal
植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报  2014ꎬ 36 (3): 388~402
Plant Diversity and Resources                                    DOI: 10.7677 / ynzwyj201413160
Received date: 2013-08-05ꎬ Accepted date: 2013-11-29
Author for correspndenceꎻ E ̄mail: bernadettemontanari@hotmail􀆰 com
National Park is considered to be a ‘ hot spot’ for
biological diversity.
    Quite apart from its unique geographical char ̄
acteristicsꎬ the High Atlas also represents an impor ̄
tant refuge for Berber communities. Although there is
some migration to urban areasꎬ population growth in
the mountains is an important feature of human cap ̄
ital. The balance of natural resources has permitted
these populations a degree of economic independ ̄
ence. Howeverꎬ living in the area has a number of
disadvantages. These are related to topographic com ̄
partmentalizationꎬ a very fragile environment and a
lack of basic infrastructures. In this respectꎬ the
High Atlas demonstrates many of the ‘ poverty and
livelihood’ issues found among mountain communi ̄
ties generally (Crawfordꎬ 2003). In particularꎬ the
communities are currently experiencing environmen ̄
tal degradation that is both a cause and a conse ̄
quence of acute rural poverty (Rasmussen and Par ̄
vezꎬ 2002)ꎬ and face considerable obstacles as far
as development is concerned. In the Atlas Mountainsꎬ
living conditions are generally very hard and difficult
to improveꎬ mainly because the central government
has always privileged the Atlantic coast and its hin ̄
terland ( Boujroufꎬ 2003 ). Furthermoreꎬ because
these regions face strong environmental constraintsꎬ
the people and the landscapes have always been
changingꎬ shiftingꎬ and self ̄regenerating. The popu ̄
lations are called to manage their environmentꎬ
something that they do generally wellꎬ contrary to
the widespread current belief that local people mis ̄
manage their resources ( Ostromꎬ 1990ꎻ Scoonesꎬ
1994ꎻ Pretty and Pimbertꎬ 1995ꎻ Leach and Me ̄
arnsꎬ 1996ꎻ Pretty and Shabꎬ 1997ꎻ Ghimire and
Pimbertꎬ 1997).
    The study presented here focuses on El Maghzen
(Fig􀆰 1)ꎬ a village in the Agoundis valley situated
within proximity of the Toubkal National Park. The
disparity between the cities and these areas is con ̄
siderableꎬ mostly because the populations are poorꎬ
marginalisedꎬ and lack the basic infrastructures for
development. The inhabitants represent one of the
poorest segments of Moroccan society in terms of lit ̄
eracyꎬ infant mortalityꎬ availability of potable waterꎬ
electrification and other development indicators
(Russellꎬ 2004). In El Maghzenꎬ the environment
is biologically rich and medicinal plants are profuse.
Endemic aromatic plants such as Thyme ( Thymus
satureioides Coss)ꎬ sage (Salvia aucheri var. canes ̄
cens) and a species of lavender (Lavandula dentata
L.) are widespread in the valley. These plants which
are one of the few sources of cash incomeꎬ are har ̄
vested during the summer months for both herbal
medicine and trade. The plants are then traded down
the valley and follows two commodity chainsꎬ one of ̄
ficial and the other informal and illegalꎬ and is most ̄
ly destined for essential oil distillation in Casablanca
and Marrakechꎬ and exported to Europe (Montan ̄
ariꎬ 2004ꎻ 2012).
The aims of this article is to emphasise the im ̄
portance of traditional ecological knowledge in the
village of El Maghzenꎬ and in particular to demon ̄
strate the value of traditional herbal knowledge to re ̄
spond to health issues in the community. It further
seeks to demonstrate the vital role that family and
community connections play for the transmission and
the continuation of traditional herbal knowledge to
the younger generations.
1  Research methods
The data relating to the traditional use of the lo ̄
cal aromatic and medicinal plants were collected
with the inhabitants of El Maghzen① . Interviews were
conducted with 53 women and 34 men of the village
to gather information on the vernacular names of the
plantsꎬ the parts usedꎬ the locations where plants
                     
    ① The data collected in this article are based on the author’s PhD thesis at the University of Kentꎬ UK (Montanariꎬ 2012) . The thesis of ̄
fers a critical analysis of the introduction of essential oil distillation in the High Atlas of Morocco with reference to the role of gendered
traditional knowledge.
9833期      Bernadette Montanari: Aromaticꎬ Medicinal Plants and Vulnerability of Traditional Herbal Knowledge 􀆺     
Fig􀆰 1  The Agoundis valley. Cartography©Bart Deseyn
were collected and the medicinal use of plants har ̄
vested. Plant free listing were also conducted with
these informants to identify the common plant knowl ̄
edge. Further questions were asked concerning
whether plants were always present in the homeꎬ the
source of interviewee knowledgeꎬ the place where
knowledge transmission occurredꎬ and if the inform ̄
ant had passed on knowledge to anyone in particular
(childrenꎬ grandchildrenꎬ neighbours or others).
2   Plants commonly used in traditional
medicine
In El Maghzenꎬ there are no close proximity
dispensaries or other forms of treatment and ethno ̄
medicine is prevalent. Some of the plants used have
also important phyto ̄chemical properties. Both women
and men in El Maghzen share a common plant
knowledge and the transmission of this knowledge
through women is entirely within the community.
Howeverꎬ the transmission of herbal knowledge and
of other traditional subsistence activities is at present
vulnerable as the community is increasingly exposed
to outside influences and interventions.
2􀆰 1  Thyme
Thyme (Thymus satureioides) is an endemic
aromatic plant that can be found widely distributed
in the Mediterranean regionꎬ and is used widely in
the local traditional medicine. Although it has been
estimated that about 350 species of the genus Thy ̄
mus can be found across the worldꎬ Moroccan thyme
speciesꎬ —Thymus satureioidesꎬ Thymus broussonet ̄
tiiꎬ Thymus maroccanusꎬ Thymus leptobotrysꎬ Thy ̄
mus willdenowii are endemic to Moroccoꎬ and with
Thymus algeriensis—have all been used in Moroccan
traditional medicine (Jaâfari et al.ꎬ 2007).
The main applications of thyme are in the treat ̄
ment of diarrhoeaꎬ feverꎬ coughsꎬ and topically in
the treatment of infected skin areas and woundsꎬ cu ̄
taneous ulcersꎬ and various types of dermatitis. More
preciselyꎬ thyme has been used and appreciated for
its positive effectsꎬ i􀆰 e. for its nervous tonic and
general stimulant propertiesꎬ producing a euphoric
effectꎬ which may be useful to fight off depressionꎬ
anxiety and insomnia (Bellakdharꎬ 1996ꎻ Ismaili et
al.ꎬ 2001). Furtherꎬ the application of thyme in
massage relieves sciaticaꎬ arthritisꎬ lumbagoꎬ goutꎬ
093                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 36卷
neuritic and rheumatic types of pain (Valnetꎬ 1964).
Similarly to Tea ̄tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) in its
anti ̄inflammatory and antiseptic propertiesꎬ thyme
applied topically in the correct dilutionꎬ speeds up
the healing of wounds and inflamed skinsꎬ mainly
due to the increase of blood flow stimulated by in ̄
creased oxygen and nutritional substances. Thyme
species not only have powerful antioxidant properties
but important antibacterial properties as well. Owing
to the presence of phenolic agentsꎬ thyme essential
oil has a direct inhibiting action on pathogenic bac ̄
terial strains such as Echerichia coliꎬ Salmonella en ̄
teritidisꎬ Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella ty ̄
phimurium (Pelnaver et al.ꎬ 2005)ꎬ and is widely
used in food protection against decay and bacteria.
Typicallyꎬ species of thyme such as Thymus satureioi ̄
desꎬ Thymus willdenowii from Morocco have revealed
the presence of major constituentsꎬ including a num ̄
ber of flavonoid derivatives of luteolin and eriodicti ̄
olꎬ both rare in the Lamiaceaeꎬ as well as rosmarinic
acid. Furtherꎬ thyme therapeutic applications extend
to the digestive and respiratory systemsꎬ relieve gas ̄
tro ̄intestinal disordersꎬ facilitating dyspepsia ( slow
digestion)ꎬ colicꎬ fermentationꎬ flatulenceꎬ diar ̄
rhoeaꎬ gastritis and gastric ulcers. In terms of respir ̄
atory ailmentsꎬ thyme has powerful expectorantꎬ
spamolytic and antiseptic propertiesꎬ exerting a
strong action for coldsꎬ flu and sinusitisꎬ bronchitis
in its acute and chronic formsꎬ tuberculosis and a
soothing action over irritableꎬ convulsive coughs
(Zarzuelo and Crespoꎬ 2002).
In El Maghzenꎬ thyme (Thymus satureioides) is
widely distributed in the mountains and local people
typically refer to it as azoukni in Tachelhit (Fig􀆰 2).
This name is given to the plant characterised by its
purple flowersꎬ which local people refer to as being a
‘male plant’ꎬ as opposed to tazouknit (Thymus pal ̄
lidus) which has white flowersꎬ and which local peo ̄
ple consider a female plant. Azoukni is taken regular ̄
lyꎬ that is more or less on a daily basisꎬ as a fresh
herbal tea infusion during the harvest season (mid ̄
May to mid ̄July) or outside the harvesting season in
the dried herb form. The dried herb is powdered and
taken regularly by women for painful mensesꎬ to re ̄
lieve gastric disorders ( stomach acheꎬ bile com ̄
plaintsꎬ indigestionꎬ intestinal trouble)ꎬ and respir ̄
atory disorders such as coldsꎬ coughsꎬ chills and
headache because of its warming character. Howev ̄
erꎬ people have cautioned that it should not be taken
over long periods of time as it will damage teeth and
gums precisely because of its warming character
(Montanariꎬ 2012).
2􀆰 2  Lavender
Lavender (Lavandula dentata) ( Fig􀆰 3)ꎬ and
to a lesser extentꎬ Lavandula multifidaꎬ can also be
found throughout the valley. Lavandula is a member
of the Nepetoideae sub ̄family in the Lamiaceae fami ̄
ly. According to Upson (2002)ꎬ 32 different species
Fig􀆰 2  Azoukni (Thymus satureioides) in flower
Source: B. Montanari 􀅹 2008
Fig􀆰 3  Timzuria (Lavandula dentata) in flower
Source: B. Montanari 􀅹 2008
1933期      Bernadette Montanari: Aromaticꎬ Medicinal Plants and Vulnerability of Traditional Herbal Knowledge 􀆺     
of Lavandula have been described in the literatureꎬ
with a number of extra species in infraspecific hy ̄
brids and taxa. Numerous sub ̄species and their hy ̄
brids are cultivated worldwide for horticulture. The
genus is widely distributed throughout the Canary
Islandsꎬ Madeira and Cape Verde Islandsꎬ across
the Mediterranean Basinꎬ North Africaꎬ South ̄west
Asiaꎬ the Arabian Peninsula and as far as India.
Perhaps best known for its popular use in the per ̄
fume industryꎬ lavender has also a long history of
medicinal use. The name Lavandula is derived from
the Latin word Lavare meaning to washꎬ as the plant
was used mainly to perfume bath water. Chu et al.
(2001) recognise that at least five different species
are used medicinallyꎬ each presenting different me ̄
dicinal properties. It is the essential oils extracted
mainly from L􀆰 intermedia and L􀆰 augustifolia that are
of economic importance in the perfume and fragrance
industries. L􀆰 latifolia and L􀆰 hybrida ( L􀆰 latifolia ×
L􀆰 augustifolia) are used to produce spike lavender
oil and lavandin oil. In vitroꎬ lavender oil has shown
antimicrobial activity against bacteriaꎬ fungi and
some insects (Kim and Leeꎬ 2002). Its spasmolytic
activity in smooth muscle in vivo supports its histori ̄
cal use as a digestive aid. Although Lavandula does
not possess potentially powerful antioxidants like
thyme or other plants of the Lamiaceae familyꎬ it
presents nonetheless potent anti ̄carcinogenicꎬ anal ̄
gesic and anti ̄allergic properties.
In El Maghzenꎬ the flowers of Lavandula denta ̄
ta or timzuria in Tachelhit are used extensively along
with other herbs in teaꎬ coffee and in infusion. Its
main application is for headacheꎬ stomachꎬ painful
menses and gynaecological problems 􀆺 etc. Women
add timzuria for its fragrance to henna mixtures ei ̄
ther for tattooing or for hair colouring. It tends to be
extensively collected for cow fodder ( Montanariꎬ
2012).
2􀆰 3  Sage
Another aromatic plant in the Agoundis valley
is sage (Salvia aucheri var. canescens). It is endemic
to the High Atlas (Taleb and Fennaneꎬ 2008). Of
the Lamiaceae familyꎬ Salvia is the largest and the
most important genus with a distribution of about 900
species worldwide. Sage has been used as an impor ̄
tant medicine since the earliest times and has been
extensively documented back to the Roman eraꎬ par ̄
ticularly Salvia officinalis. The name Salvia comes
from the Latin ‘Salvus’ meaning safe. Traditionallyꎬ
the various species of sage have been applied in skin
and hair careꎬ as an antifungalꎬ to treat skin condi ̄
tions in bathing and washingꎬ for wound treatment
and rheumatismꎬ for varicose and leg conditionsꎬ for
nervous and mental conditionsꎬ to stop milk produc ̄
tion in nursing mothers and for feet and pedicular
problems ( Dweckꎬ 2000 ). Salvia presents rich
sources of polyphenolic flavonoids and phenolic
acidsꎬ unique to the genus ( Lu and Fooꎬ 2002)ꎬ
and has a high content of useful secondary metabo ̄
litesꎬ including terpenes and phenolics and their de ̄
rivatives. Other reputed spheres of action for Salvia
are beneficial effects on memory disordersꎬ depres ̄
sion and cerebral ischemia.
In El Maghzenꎬ the vernacular name for both
Salvia aucheri and Salvia officinalis is salmia. While
Salvia offcinalis is grown in gardensꎬ the collection
of Salvia aucheri occurs at the same time as azoukni
(Thymus satureioides) when villagers spend most of
the day collecting the plants in the mountains. It is
often used in tea or coffee in combination with other
plants. Its main applications are for stomach and in ̄
testinal discomfortꎬ backacheꎬ to improve circula ̄
tionꎬ for vertigoꎬ diabetesꎬ against vomitingꎬ and it
has a relaxing effect on the gall bladder. As with
thymeꎬ people have warned that it should not be
used excessively because of its warming character.
2􀆰 4  Other plants traditionally used
Other plants widely used in the traditional phar ̄
macopeia are Artemisia ( Artemisia herba ̄alba As ̄
so)ꎬ Chenopodium (Chenopodium ambrosioides L.)ꎬ
Cistus (Cistus salviifolus L.)ꎬ Globularia (Globular ̄
ia alypum L.)ꎬ Horehound ( Marrubium vulgare
L.)ꎬ Inula ( Inula montana L.)ꎬ Iris ( Iris germani ̄
ca L.)ꎬ Lemon Verbena (Lippia citriodora Kunth)ꎬ
293                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 36卷
Madder (Rubia peregrina L.)ꎬ Pennyroyal (Mentha
pulegium L.)ꎬ round leaved mint (Mentha rotundi ̄
folia L.)ꎬ and Thuya (Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl)
Masters) .
Artemisiaꎬ shich in Tachelhitꎬ belongs to the
Asteraceae family. Artemisia is widely use in Moroc ̄
can traditional medicine. In the villageꎬ it is mainly
used for coldsꎬ lung complaintsꎬ stomach and intes ̄
tinal discomfortꎬ vomitingꎬ vertigoꎬ bile complaintsꎬ
headaches and tooth acheꎬ especially after extrac ̄
tion. The whole plant without roots is often used in
tea or coffee. It is also applied as a powder for facial
spots. It has other uses as a vermifugeꎬ emmena ̄
gogueꎬ diureticꎬ intestinal tonicꎬ cholagogue and
anti ̄diabetic (Montanariꎬ 2012). An essential oil is
extractedꎬ of which the main components are thuy ̄
oneꎬ camphor and flavonoidsꎬ varying in chemotypes
according to the geographical situation. The plant isꎬ
howeverꎬ toxic in strong dosages and can provoke
vertigo and convulsions (Bellakhdarꎬ 1996).
Chenopodium (Chenopodium ambrosioides) or
mhinza in Tachelhitꎬ belongs to the Chenopodiace ̄
aeꎬ and is widely distributed on river banks. The
leaves mixed with water or onions are applied to the
head for headaches and feverꎬ particularly for chil ̄
dren’ s ailments. The dried powdered leaves are
drunk with a little water for migraineꎬ and the juice
extracted from the leaves and mixed with orange
juice is drunk for fever and stomach ache. The juice
is a very sticky and potent plant medicine which lo ̄
cal people know exactly how to administer as it is al ̄
so given to children ( Montanariꎬ 2012). A well ̄
known use for Chenopodium is as a vermifugeꎬ act ̄
ing as an active anthelmintic for the expulsion of
round wormsꎬ especially in children. For this pur ̄
poseꎬ the whole plant is employed (Grieveꎬ 1931 /
1980). Howeverꎬ Chenopodium may be included in
small quantities in herbal mixtures for the treatment
of fevers and headaches.
Cistus (Cistus salviifolus)ꎬ or irguel and the fe ̄
male plant tirguelt are widely used in the valley. Ir ̄
guel is administered for stomachꎬ intestinal discom ̄
fortꎬ menstruationꎬ chills and rheumatismꎬ for lack
of appetite and to put on weight. It is also considered
as an aphrodisiac. The leaves are mixed with taseft
roots (Quercus ilex) for stomach ache and for war ̄
ming. The crushed seeds mixed with water are taken
for chillsꎬ menstruationꎬ the seeds mixed with milk
or soup for rheumatism. It is an important ingredient
of sliloꎬ a pleasant compact mixture of flourꎬ honeyꎬ
olive oilꎬ mashed almonds and walnuts and pow ̄
dered irguel seedsꎬ consumed in winter or during
celebrations such as weddings and Ramadanꎬ served
with tea as an appetiser. Slilo with irguel seeds has
the reputation for helping women put on weight. For
this reasonꎬ it is prescribed for lack of appetite
(Montanariꎬ 2012).
Globularia ( Globularia alypum)ꎬ or tirka in
Tachelhit belongs to the Globulariaceae and grows in
the mountains. It forms bushes with blue flowers re ̄
sembling globules. In the Agoundis valleyꎬ people
refer to it as ‘Berber tea’ even though the leaves
and flowers are mainly added to coffee and only to a
lesser extent to tea. It is often mixed with other
plants because it has a strong taste. Its main medici ̄
nal applications are for stomach acheꎬ headacheꎬ
menstruationꎬ diabetes and vomiting. It is also men ̄
tioned as part of a mixture to calm sexual excitability
(Montanariꎬ 2012). It is used as a treatment for di ̄
abetes ( Bnouham et al.ꎬ 2002ꎻ Jarald et al.ꎬ
2008)ꎬ but has to be administered with care as it
can be toxicꎬ provoking vertigoꎬ oliguriaꎬ diarrhoeaꎬ
aching membersꎬ hypothermia and slow pulse rate.
Horehound (Marrubium vulgare)ꎬ or ifzi in
Tachelhit belongs to the Lamiaceae. It is an emmen ̄
agogueꎬ expectorantꎬ febrifugeꎬ sedativeꎬ and sto ̄
machic. Locallyꎬ people use it for diabetes in the
form of teaꎬ using the whole plant without the seeds.
For stomach ache and wormsꎬ the juice from the
leaves is mixed with a little water and sugar. A mix ̄
ture of leaf juice and olive oil is inserted in the ear
canal for earacheꎬ and the powdered leaves with wa ̄
ter and sugar for headache. A decoction is often pre ̄
scribed as anti ̄typhoidꎬ anti ̄ictericꎬ acting as a ton ̄
3933期      Bernadette Montanari: Aromaticꎬ Medicinal Plants and Vulnerability of Traditional Herbal Knowledge 􀆺     
ic and stimulant. Further external uses are for ab ̄
scesses and boils where the plant is applied in poul ̄
tices (Montanariꎬ 2012). Use of the plant to treat
diabetes is supported in the literature (Eddouks et
al.ꎬ 2002).
Inula Montana or ija oumghar in Tachlehitꎬ be ̄
longs to the Asteraceaeꎬ and is considered the queen
of the warming herbs. It is found widespread in the
mountains surrounding the village. Its main use is for
coldsꎬ chillsꎬ and lung problems. The leaves are add ̄
ed to hot waterꎬ coffee or tea or mixed in hot milk. It
can also be used for insomnia taken with hot milk. A
further use is for aching eyes where the roots are left
to stand in milk. Ija oumghar is a recommended addi ̄
tion in herbal mixtures to address cold and chilling
conditions. People have warned against overuse be ̄
cause of the damage that it can cause to teethꎬ pre ̄
sumably for its warming effects (Montanariꎬ 2012).
Iris ( Iris germanica)ꎬ or soussban in Tachel ̄
hitꎬ belongs to the Iridaceae. Irises are found in
most walled terrace gardensꎬ throughout the valley.
Because of their rhizome systemꎬ they play an im ̄
portant role in soil fixation. The plant possesses ma ̄
ny therapeutic properties in traditional medicineꎬ in ̄
cluding anti ̄spasmodicꎬ emmenagogueꎬ stimulantꎬ
diuretic and aperient actions. Dropsy and gall blad ̄
der diseases can be relieved with a decoction of the
rootꎬ and the juice of the rhizome is very effective
for the removal of skin freckles and sores. Further u ̄
ses include blood purifying virtues and as a sound
treatment for venereal diseases. Soussban also pro ̄
duces an essential oil with important compounds
such as flavonoidsꎬ isoflavonoides and their glyco ̄
sidesꎬ benzoquinonesꎬ triterpenoids and stilbene gly ̄
cosides. In particularꎬ the iridals contained in the
rhizomes have exhibited a potent pesticidal action
and potent anti ̄cancer activities ( Asgahr et al.ꎬ
2009ꎻ Rhaman et al.ꎬ 2002). The use of Iris ger ̄
manica is well known in the pharmaceutical and cos ̄
metic industry and has already been granted a few
patents for its anti ̄wrinkle properties and transforma ̄
tion methods ( Patent US 6ꎬ 224ꎬ 850 B1ꎬ 2001.
Patent US 6ꎬ 459ꎬ 017 B1 2002). In the villages of
the Agoundis valleyꎬ the roots of soussban are col ̄
lectedꎬ cleaned and sold in the local souk. It can
fetch up to a few hundred dirhams per kilo.
Lemon Verbena (Lippia citriodora) or luisa in
Tachelhit belongs to the Verbenaceae. The genus
contains approximately 200 speciesꎬ shrubs and other
small trees. Traditionally prepared in herbal teaꎬ it
enjoys a long history in folk medicine because of its
antispasmodicꎬ antipyreticꎬ sedative and digestive
properties. Lippia citriodora contains essential oilsꎬ
from which geranialꎬ neral and limonene are extrac ̄
ted and it is believed that phenolic compounds (fla ̄
vonoids) are responsible for the therapeutic properties
(Argyropoulou et al.ꎬ 2007). Further studies on Lip ̄
pia essential oil have revealed antimicrobial activity
(Pascual et al.ꎬ 2001)ꎬ activities primarily derived
from leaf oil extraction. Although not an endemic
plant of the High Atlasꎬ it is found cultivated in pro ̄
fusion in gardens all around villages. As its name sug ̄
gestsꎬ it has a strong lemon scent. Its main applica ̄
tions are for insomniaꎬ headachesꎬ and restlessness in
babiesꎬ blood circulation and stomach ache. The
whole plant without roots is utilised in infusion or tea.
Thereforeꎬ luisa can be added to herbal mixtures to
address insomniaꎬ sleeplessness and agitation.
Madder (Rubia peregrina) belongs to the Rubi ̄
aceae. Its vernacular name in Tachelhit is tarubiya.
Tarubiya is found mainly in stonewalls forming ter ̄
races and around gardens. In the villageꎬ the dried
roots are used for circulatory and heart problemsꎬ
and for childbirth. It gives food a red colour when
used in tajine. Other uses of the plant include jaun ̄
dice and liver ailmentsꎬ and to fortify blood. The
roots are further used as a diuretic and emmenagogue
to induce menses. An essential oil can be extracted
from the plantꎬ rich mainly in anthraquinones. It is
widely used in dying processes to obtain a red colour
for leather or wool. In a dried fromꎬ tarubiya is an
interesting addition to any mixture treating circulato ̄
ry problems.
Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium)ꎬ or fliyyo and
493                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 36卷
round leaved mint (Mentha rotundifolia)ꎬ or timijja
in Tachelhitꎬ are mints belonging to the Lamiaceae
familyꎬ and found widespread close to water or damp
places. The plants are used in inhalationꎬ thoracic
cataplasms for lung infections and are considered the
plants ‘par excellence’ for winter ailments because
of their warming qualities. Fliyyo is further employed
for delayed menses and for promoting menstruation
(Bellakhderꎬ 1996ꎻ Pottertonꎬ 1993). Both plants’
main use in the village of El Maghzen are for coldsꎬ
chillsꎬ coughsꎬ stomach ache and dyspepsiaꎬ and it
is employed as the whole plant without roots in milkꎬ
tea or coffee. It is often part of a mixture with other
plants in tea. Although the plants come from the
same familyꎬ there are differences in the oils that the
plants produce. Fliyyo and timijja are endemic to the
Agoundis valley and found profusely by the river and
in irrigated gardens. Both plants are a valuable addi ̄
tion to any dried herbal mixture prescribed for coldsꎬ
coughs and chillsꎬ and when added to other plants for
amenorrhea or dysmenorrhoea (Montanariꎬ 2012).
Thuya ( Tetraclinis articulata)ꎬ or azouka in
Tachelhitꎬ is endemic to North Africa. Thuya posses ̄
ses many properties and is used in traditional medi ̄
cine. Local people use it for headachesꎬ often mixed
with henna and applied to the headꎬ stomach acheꎬ
lack of appetiteꎬ bile problemsꎬ high blood pres ̄
sureꎬ vertigoꎬ sicknessꎬ children ’ s headachesꎬ
gynaecological problemsꎬ diabetesꎬ feverꎬ coldsꎬ
chills and lung problems. The main method of prepa ̄
ration is to make a powder from the dried leavesꎬ
and then add this to teaꎬ coffeeꎬ sour milk or soupꎬ
or to inhale as a fumigant (Montanariꎬ 2012). A
sticky resin named sandarac or ar’ar in Arabic or
commonly referred to as sandarac gum is extracted
from the bark. In the pastꎬ its prime application was
in the production of varnish and as a useful added
ingredient in lacquersꎬ adhesives and paints. It was
mainly exported to Europe for industrial and pharma ̄
ceutical purposes. Todayꎬ it has an application in
dentistry and is used to fill decayed or damaged
teeth. Powdered leaves can be applied externally to
heal woundsꎬ and to close ̄up the wound of newborn
babies’ umbilical cord. Women in Essouira region
tend not to use thuya because of its warmingꎬ em ̄
menagogue properties as it may cause an abortion in
pregnant women (Kaletaꎬ 2008).
3  A society still ruled by its traditional
customary system
In El Maghzenꎬ the traditional autonomous cus ̄
tomary lawꎬ the jama’aꎬ still largely rules the com ̄
munity. Traditionallyꎬ the jama’a is based on oli ̄
garchies or small political and administrative entities
on a given limited territoryꎬ composed of amghar (a
local figure holding a government position) and taqbilt
( a tribe or political unit ) . The village jama’ aꎬ
comprises in fact two councilsꎬ one consisting of a
small group of elders representing each lineage in
the villageꎬ and anotherꎬ a larger body where a male
member represents the household. The jama’a ( laj ̄
maa’t)ꎬ composed of between three to ten or more
lineagesꎬ is a territorial unit comprising one or more
villages (douar)ꎬ whose control and jurisdiction is
spread over its territory (Madhiꎬ 1999). Identified
by Montagne (1930) as the ‘Berber Senate’ꎬ this
vital body regulating administrativeꎬ legislative and
executive functions over social and environmental
matters is governed by an assembly of households’
male representatives who meet in each village in the
mosque to discuss matters informallyꎬ usually after
prayer on Fridays. Above allꎬ it is formed by those
who recogniseꎬ and indeed are recognised by the
community as acting for the common interest of allꎬ
on both a material and spiritual level. Although nev ̄
er codifiedꎬ this governing body was previously ap ̄
plied flexibly for solving problems of resource use
and played a vital role in resolving disputesꎬ mobil ̄
ising and regulating collective work. It regulated not
only individual access but also collective accessꎬ and
was integrated into the cultural and political life of
the community ( Id Balkassmꎬ 2002). It was also a
vital element in keeping together different lineagesꎬ
households and other village members for work in
5933期      Bernadette Montanari: Aromaticꎬ Medicinal Plants and Vulnerability of Traditional Herbal Knowledge 􀆺     
situations where survival entailed cooperation in a
particularly harsh environment.
In the pastꎬ the inhabitants of El Maghzen had
collective rights of access to the land for their sub ̄
sistence needsꎬ e􀆰 g. harvesting medicinal plants and
collecting wood for fuel and building material. How ̄
everꎬ the national government claimed to own the
land and the Department of Water and Forestry was
assigned the task of control during the French coloni ̄
al period (1917). Since thenꎬ village residents have
had limited access to their traditional landsꎬ and can
only collect medicinal plants for personal use and for
the collection of dead wood. Currentlyꎬ if local peo ̄
ple are caught collecting for tradeꎬ they are fined by
the Department’s representative. Although in recent
yearsꎬ the authorities have encouraged the transfer of
this traditional customary law to a more formal form
of associationꎬ e􀆰 g a non ̄governmental organisationꎬ
to facilitate cooperation with outside organisations
such as development agencies ( Downsꎬ 2003 )ꎬ
people still refer to it and follow directives regarding
land accessꎬ whether land is used as collective pas ̄
ture or not (Venema and Mguildꎬ 2002: 109). At
present time as well as during the Protectorateꎬ peo ̄
ple have fallen back on the customary law to access
the resources in times of conflict and confusion over
land access. Even though the authorities may formal ̄
ly control resource access and useꎬ in practice this
does not happen (Montanariꎬ 2013: 56).
4  Traditonal ecological knowledge practices
In El Maghzenꎬ as in most other traditional so ̄
cietiesꎬ the traditional knowledge transmission is
both horizontal between the members of the same
generationꎬ and vertical between members of differ ̄
ent generationsꎬ stereotypically between parents and
their offspring (Guglielmino et al.ꎬ 1995). It is vi ̄
tal for the maintenance of the landꎬ water and bio ̄
logical resources upon which people dependꎬ and
enters into decision ̄making chains at every stage in
productionꎬ managementꎬ distribution and consump ̄
tion ( Berkes et al.ꎬ 2000ꎻ Ellenꎬ 2011ꎻ Folkesꎬ
2004ꎻ Grenierꎬ 1998ꎻ Turner and Garibaldiꎬ 2004).
4􀆰 1  Traditional agriculture
The Agoundis valleyꎬ enclosed between abrupt
forested slopesꎬ is one of the narrowest and most en ̄
claved valleys of the High Atlas and offers very little
cultivable space. The strong declivity of the slopes
favours the streaming and erosion of the groundꎬ
thus necessitating the construction of terraces. Local
families have traditionally diversified livelihood strat ̄
egies according to the seasons mainly because of the
altitude rangesꎬ and integrated terrace agriculture
has allowed the local population to subsist on diver ̄
sified rotation agricultures ( Barrow and Hichamꎬ
2000). This human modification has shaped over
thousands of years the typicality and diversity of
these landscapes and contributed to the control of e ̄
rosion and the promotion of agricultureꎬ resulting in
a remarkable anthropic landscape (Gerbatiꎬ 2004).
Farming activities take place in terraced fields cut
into the steep valley sides and for centuriesꎬ the vil ̄
lagers of the High Atlas have practiced a mixture of
subsistence cultivation and pastoralism. The number
of terraces is more or less equally divided between
the households and gardens are well ̄delineated due
to the restricted space for cultivation (Fig􀆰 4). The
main crops in the gardens are wheat and barleyꎬ har ̄
vested once a year during the summerꎬ and more re ̄
cently alfalfa (Medicago sativa)ꎬ which is collected
mainly for cow fodder. Only cow and chicken manure
is added once a yearꎬ and crops are often compan ̄
ion ̄planted in groups of two or three cultigensꎬ for
exampleꎬ tomatoes with maize and peasꎬ broad
beansꎬ onions and egg plants in the absence of
chemical pesticides (Fig􀆰 5). Sowingꎬ weeding and
harvesting are mostly done by women in the gardensꎬ
while men tend to be involved with the duty of
ploughing. This work is mainly undertaken using a
donkey or a mule and traditional ploughꎬ which does
require a certain amount of strength to push the axle
of the mill and the control of the animal. Wheat and
barley is harvested by both men and women during
the summer (Mayꎬ June) and involves cutting the
693                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 36卷
Fig􀆰 4  Little terrace garden where every space is used
Source: B. Montanari 􀅹 2007
Fig􀆰 5  Typical cultivation of tomato plants growing on reed
frames with egg plant (Solanum melongena)
Source: B. Montanari 􀅹 2007
wheat and barley to be carried back to the village
terraces for drying.
Although the reliance on local resources tends
to be heavyꎬ the inhabitants of El Maghzen have al ̄
ways been self ̄sufficient and techniques for manag ̄
ing the land and other natural resources have
changed little over the centuries. Over timeꎬ the
population has adapted and shaped the landscape ac ̄
cording to its needs and flexible mechanisms have
been developed—terracingꎬ irrigationꎬ pasture man ̄
agementꎬ transhumanceꎬ crop selection. These have
allowed the community to survive difficult ( including
extreme climatic) conditions using the resources at
hand (Montanariꎬ 2014). Gardens provide the basic
crops to feed the familyꎬ but are also a recreational
space and women usually make pre ̄arrangements for
meetings. In the spring and summerꎬ families will
spend a considerable amount of time in the garden
and a younger member of the family would usually
bring food and tea to the garden.
Although women’s outdoor activities reflect the
harshness of daily existenceꎬ many activities are col ̄
lective and group cohesion is very important in the
community. Women will often gather and go down to
the terraces togetherꎬ and reap either alone or with
other family members. Although men are also in ̄
volved in harvesting wheat and barley from the ter ̄
racesꎬ the wheat and barley processing done by men
is quite different as they are more involved in thres ̄
hing. The collection of wood is either a female or
male activityꎬ in which a group of young children
and young adults team up for the taskꎬ loading the
donkeys and mules with chopped wood before retur ̄
ning to the village at dusk. Cow fodder collection al ̄
so occurs in the mountains and groups of between
two and four women may collect together. It requires
traipsing long distances over the mountain slopes and
carrying the fodder back to the village. Cattle fodder
collection also occurs from the gardensꎬ and while
these are closer to the villageꎬ it still requires carry ̄
ing bales of fodder on the back. The feeding of ani ̄
mals is undertaken within the village which is close
to home and usually takes place early in the morning
or later in the afternoon.
4􀆰 2  Traditional water management
There are different types of collective water re ̄
sources and the water distribution shows the impor ̄
tance of traditional water management practices.
These consist primarily of the Agoundis and Ait
Ahmed oued ( streams). Although the Fonds Inter ̄
national de développement de l’Agriculture (FIDA)
and the Agence de développement solidaire (ADS)
have in recent years replaced the old traditional sys ̄
tem by an hydraulic unit for collective management
defined by a central targa ( irrigation canal)ꎬ and
fed by a water pump coming from an artificial pool
7933期      Bernadette Montanari: Aromaticꎬ Medicinal Plants and Vulnerability of Traditional Herbal Knowledge 􀆺     
(or a water catchment)ꎬ associated with a more re ̄
cently ̄built cement damꎬ two types of traditional wa ̄
ter distribution system still prevail.
The first called tawala supplies water on re ̄
quest when it is abundantꎬ particularly during spri ̄
ngtime. The second called nouba is the most common
system in which distribution is based on water rights
and allocation is timed according to lineage. The al ̄
located time varies from half to a whole dayꎬ depen ̄
ding on the accounting unit from the artificial pool.
Water originating from villages higher up the valley
is diverted from the river to irrigate the terraces of
lower villages through an intricate branching system.
Men undertake heavier and more complex structural
tasksꎬ such as the maintainance of the main ele ̄
ments of the irrigation system. When the river is dry
in the summerꎬ most men pursue the building of riv ̄
er damsꎬ digging the river bed to find water before
diverting it to a common pool. Huge rocks are lifted
from the river bed to facilitate terrace irrigation. The
architecture of the terraces is such that irrigated wa ̄
ter can reach every garden and the sluices are
opened in turn in each village at precise times of the
week so that everyone gets a share. With climatic
conditions changing rapidlyꎬ the inhabitants are not
only concerned about garden irrigation but also
drinkable water for the village. Shortage of water is
an issue during the summer monthsꎬ and mainte ̄
nance of the waterworks is vital to ensure that the
river flow can reach the lower terraces (Montanariꎬ
2012ꎬ 2013).
4􀆰 3  Agdal: Seasonal grazing practices
Although nomadic seasonal transhumance was
very common up to the 1950s between natural low
and highland pasturesꎬ herding is now mainly seden ̄
taryꎬ involving small flock of grazing goats or sheep.
It takes place during particular periodsꎬ especially in
the higher pastures of the valleyꎬ and is often sup ̄
plemented by the addition of fodder harvested from
the garden or the mountainsꎬ or even with hay when
villagers can afford it (Bourbouzeꎬ 1999). Howev ̄
erꎬ in part of the High Atlas where transhumance
still occursꎬ a type of resource management institu ̄
tion known as the agdal system functions at a larger
territorial level that of the fraction and tribe (Dom ̄
inguez et al.ꎬ 2013ꎻ Genin and Simenelꎬ 2011).
This method of managing common resourcesꎬ desig ̄
nated as appropriation and management of the landꎬ
is still implemented by the jama’aꎬ a status resul ̄
ting from customary rightsꎬ which regulates access to
a lineage territory and its resources. It is a geograph ̄
ical and agro ̄ecological space characterised by the
physical environment and specific biotic resources
( treesꎬ pastureꎬ and agriculture ). These grazing
practices are regulated and sustained by rigid open ̄
ing and closing dates for usage of specific ̄collective
pastures. Agdal are typically found in high mountain
pastures and are the most widespread and formalised
system of transhumance where good pastureland and
water can be found after the winter snow and during
the dry summer months. This system is important be ̄
cause traditionallyꎬ Berber pastoralists followed a
pattern of seasonal migrationꎬ grazing herds at low
altitudes during the winter and at higher altitudes in
summerꎬ allowing for the regeneration of pastureland
during the months when the agdal were closed
(Mahdiꎬ 1999ꎻ Auclairꎬ 1996).
5  Transmission of a vulnerable tradition ̄
al herbal knowledge
Plant knowledge is common to both men and
women in El Maghzen and distribution of this knowl ̄
edge follows different paths. Howeverꎬ at the present
timeꎬ transmission of plant knowledge and of other
traditional subsistence activities is very fragile as the
community is increasingly exposed to outside influ ̄
ences and interventions. For instanceꎬ children who
often accompany their parents to the terraced gardens
participate in weeding activitiesꎬ help to prepare the
terracesꎬ or gather cow fodder in the nearby mounta ̄
ins. These are important locations for practical
knowledge transmission. Within the communityꎬ
transmission of plant knowledge for instance occurs
mainly through womenꎬ and parents are a strong
893                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 36卷
vector within the family environment. In the house ̄
holdꎬ girls learn mainly from their mother (41%)
and their grand ̄parents (11%)ꎬ and to a great ex ̄
tend by themselves (19%). This knowledge is ac ̄
quired through watching other women preparing
medicine in the house and when collecting medicinal
plants in the gardenꎬ at the river or in the
mountains. Overallꎬ the family groupꎬ defined as
parentsꎬ sistersꎬ paternal aunt and uncle and com ̄
munity cohesion is very important and women learn
equally through friendsꎬ and from the elderly people
of the village (22%). Men’ s plant knowledge on
the other handꎬ is also acquired from their mother
but to a lesser extent ( 26%) and also from their
grand ̄parents (6%). As with womenꎬ transmission
occurs mainly within the family networksꎬ and the
transmission from these combined is greater than with
women (38%). Many men claimed to learn by them ̄
selves (12%)ꎬ but also from friends and acquaint ̄
ances in the village (18%)ꎬ and to a lesser extent
from their fathers (Fig􀆰 6).
Furthermoreꎬ most families store plants in the
house. Eighty ̄three percent of women and 63% of
men responded that they always had harvested sup ̄
plies of plants in the house. Twelve percent of
women and 37% of men responded that they did not.
Men’s higher responses are attributed to the fact that
plant preparation and administration is usually done
by women. Thereforeꎬ men may not always be aware
that plants are available in the house. Howeverꎬ 5%
of women mentioned that they did not always con ̄
sume their own phyto ̄medicinesꎬ and that if allo ̄
pathic medicine were availableꎬ would rather take
that (Fig􀆰 7).
Places and traditional activities where acquisi ̄
tion occurs are also importantꎬ and 53% of men are
more likely to acquire plant knowledge during har ̄
vesting activities on mountainside than women (25%).
On the other handꎬ women are more likely to acquire
knowledge in indoor activities than men ( 47% for
women and 12% for men). Both men and womenꎬ
howeverꎬ acquired knowledge in other contextsꎬ for
instance in places such as the gardens and at the riv ̄
erꎬ although gardens are generally more important
for women than for men (35% for women and 28%
for men) (Fig􀆰 8). Menꎬ on the other handꎬ tend to
learn these traditional skills in activities while atten ̄
ding the building of river dams or digging the river
bed to find water for the maintenance of irrigationꎬ
particularly during the summer when there is a short ̄
age of water.
Overallꎬ women and men indicated that they
passed on herbal knowledge to their children and
these were likely to acquire in indoor and outdoor
activities. For 75% of women and 29% of menꎬ this
was reported as occurring at home. For instanceꎬ
children were able to familiarise themselves with this
knowledge during the preparation of herbal medicine
for a sick family member in the house. Older mem ̄
bers of the family (brothersꎬ sistersꎬ aunts or grand ̄
parents) equally participate in this transmission to
younger childrenꎬ or sisters and brothers. Six per ̄
cent of women and 16% of men reported that they
showed the children plants while in the mountains.
Women ( 6%) and men ( 15%) also reported to
transmit this knowledge in settings like the riverꎬ
garden and around the village. Howeverꎬ 13% of the
women and 40% (of men) reported that they did not
(Fig􀆰 9).
These data suggest that the potential for knowl ̄
edge erosion is related to work group composition
and opportunities for sharing views on particular ac ̄
tivities. Although the inhabitants of El Maghzen are
strongly motivated to perpetuate their traditional
knowledge based on good economic reasonsꎬ these
data indicate that many traditional knowledge prac ̄
tices including those relying on plant knowledgeꎬ are
vulnerable because their transmission depends on
women’s work in key placesꎬ such as the house ̄
holdꎬ the gardens and to some extent the mountain ̄
sides. Women are central to the maintenance of the
household equilibriumꎬ and other outdoor activities
and the transmission of knowledge to the younger
generation take place through these channels.
9933期      Bernadette Montanari: Aromaticꎬ Medicinal Plants and Vulnerability of Traditional Herbal Knowledge 􀆺     
Fig􀆰 6  Informants’ pathways of plant knowledge acquisition Fig􀆰 7  Informants’ responses to plant storage in the house
Fig􀆰 8  Informants’ places for plant knowledge acquisition Fig􀆰 9  Places of plant knowledge acquisition for children
  While globalisation is gaining ground even in
the most remote parts of the country and external de ̄
velopment interventions and new financial opportuni ̄
ties ariseꎬ the pattern of traditional activities and the
associated knowledge transmission is likely to change.
For instanceꎬ one could anticipate that women will
give up the activities that they perceive to be the
most unrewarding within and outside the household.
6  Conclusion
As a crucial component for the management of
natural resourcesꎬ traditional ecological knowledge in
El Maghzen has allowed the communities′ subsistence
for centuries. These traditional skills and management
practices have been shaped and re ̄shapedꎬ to re ̄
spond to particular problems and situations and to
maintain specific survival objectives (Sillitoeꎬ 2004ꎻ
Sillitoe et al.ꎬ 2003). They have not only appropri ̄
ately addressed the problems of living at high alti ̄
tudes and limited spaceꎬ but also buffered for extreme
changing climatic conditions. As the younger genera ̄
tions move away to the cities to find employmentꎬ this
traditional knowledge is imminently becoming vulner ̄
able and will ultimately be lost. Its transmission to the
younger members of the community is therefore cruci ̄
al for the continuity to the future generations.
004                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 36卷
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