全 文 ：Legal Issues Surrounding the Genetic Resource Conservation
and Use of Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms
JONG Shung-Chang1 * , LIU Zi-Qiang2
?
(1 Consultant for Global Affairs, ATCC, 10801 University Blvd ., Manassas, VA 20110 - 2209 , USA ;
2 Edible Fungi Chamber , China Chamber of Commerce for Impart and Export of Foodstuffs,
Native Produceand Animal By-Products, 4?F , Talent International Building,
No . 80 Guangqumennei Street, Chongwen District, Beijing 10062 , China)
Abstract: Edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms (EEMMs) have an enormous impact on biodiversity, global climate regula-
tion, genetic resources as well as on global economic and social development . According to current trends in the develop-
ment of intellectual property ( IP) mechanisms, the use or application of EEMM genetic resources may be judged as an IP
rightwith legal protection granted by sovereign authority . Protection of IP and proprietary rights can enhance the genetic
material being usedand technology being developed, prevent others from patenting the invention, recoup investments, im-
provetrade, establish market position, preserve the identity, and generate revenues through forming strategic alliance,
such as joint ventures, collaborative research agreements, joint researchagreements, joint researchand development agree-
ments, manufacturinganddistributionalliances, and cross-licensingarrangements . Variousinternational agreements andtrea-
ties (such as CBD?UNEP, TRIPS?WTO, ITPGR?FAO, GBIF?OECD, Budapest Treaty?WIPO) have brought together the
complex issues of genetic resources and intellectual property . A number of bilateral andmultilateral initiatives havebeen im-
plementedto protect IP assets amongthe proposed users . All agreements arenegotiated in amanner that is coherentwith and
mutually supportive of national and international laws, local customs, rules and regulationsand implementedthrough collabo-
rative action by governments, appropriate organizations and professional societies, fieldcollectors and their sponsors, and cu-
rators and users of EEMM genetic materials . Lack of IP right protection will bar trade . The United States has granted fa-
vored-trading status only to those nations that meet rigid IP right protection standards .
Key words: Ectomycorrhizae; Mushrooms; Genetic resources; Conservation; Use; Legal issues
CLC number : Q 16 Document Code : A Article ID: 0253 - 2700 (2009 ) Suppl.ⅩⅥ - 103 - 07
Introduction
Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis is an obligate associa-
tionbetween the rootsof many plant species and diverse
soil fungi . It is estimated that more than 900 speciesof
ectomycorrhizal fungi produce edible mushrooms while
about 8 000 species of seed plants form ectomycorrhi-
zas, constituting the dominant component of forest and
woodland ecosystems over much of the Earth . The in-
terdependency of this relationship is evident that a loss
of ectomycorrhizal fungi would result in a loss of plant
species, and hence the loss of valuable resources that
might be applied to themajor global issues (e.g ., glo-
bal warming, clean energy) facing us today . The use
of advanced forest, agricultural and industrial technolo-
gies, the human population explosion, and disturbanc-
es to ecosystems by resource exploitation have resulted
in reduced biological diversity and biomass . It is im-
perative that pertinent processes must be in place to
conserve the genetic resources of edible ectomycorrhizal
mushrooms ( EEMMs) to ensure the forest biodiversity
and to sustain its genetic parts or components in terms
of ecosystems, health, equitable growth and economic
viability .
The Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushroom Ge-
netic Resources
The benefits of the conservation and sustainable
useof biological diversity are emphasized by theUnited
Nations Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD ) ,
which requires access to and sharingof bothgenetic re-
云 南 植 物 研 究 2009 , Suppl . ⅩⅥ : 103～109
Acta Botanica Yunnanica
? ?Author for correspondence; E-mail : sjong@ atcc.org; liuziqiang@cccfna.org. cn
sources and technologies . According to article 2 of the
CBD, the term“biological resources”includes“genetic
resources, organisms or part of thereof , populations or
any other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or
potential value for humanity”. The term“Genetic re-
sources”is defined as“genetic material of actual or po-
tential value”while“genetic material” is defined as
“any material of plant, animal , microbial or other ori-
gin containing functional units of heredity .”Being by
itself not functional , DNA is the basis of heredity and
thus a genetic resource as defined by the CBD .“Bio-
logical diversity”is a broad term that covers all levels
of living organisms on theEarth, fromgenetic diversity
within species to diversity of ecosystems, includingma-
rine and other aquatic ecosystems . Through this“eco-
systemapproach”, theCBD attempts to promotethe in-
tegrated management of land, water and genetic re-
sources to ensure conservation and sustainable use in a
fair and equitable way .
The genetic resources such as theEEMMs areba-
sic to and absolutely essential for many aspects of sus-
tainable ecosystems, energy generation, pollution con-
trol , soil enhancement, and forest commodity produc-
tion . Although matters related to the conservation and
sustainable use of EEMM genetic resources and the
management related to technology may appear purely
technical , they have strong economic, social , political
and legal implications . With technological changes,
globalization and increased corporate ownership have
radically changed the face of forest business which is
closely integrated with other sectors of the bio-econo-
my . This means that there arediverse professionals in-
volved in forest value chains transforming renewable
forestry material (biomass) into newsourcesof energy,
industrial products, health-relatedgoods andmany oth-
er products and services . It is no surprise that ques-
tions posed by the emergence of intellectual property
( IP) rights of EEMM genetic resources are challeng-
ing, complex, and perhaps irreconcilable .
Recognition of the intrinsic ecological , social ,
economic, scientific, educational , cultural and recre-
ational valuesof biological diversity has contributed sig-
nificantly to the genetic resource conservation and use
of EEMMs . There aremany different approaches to the
conservation of EEMM genetic diversity, including
combinations of both ex situ and in situ techniques .
The CBD defines insitu conservation as“ theconserva-
tion of ecosystems and natural habitats and themainte-
nance and recovery of viable populations of species in
their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesti-
cated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where
they have developed their distinctive properties .” Ex
situ conservation is defined as“conservation of compo-
nents of biological diversity outside their natural habi-
tats .”These approaches are complementary, but not
exclusively alternative, and the requirements for any
EEMM species may be met by a combination of ap-
proaches . Recent advances in biotechnology and devel-
opment of molecular techniques such as molecular
markers and gene sequences hold the promise of im-
proving efficiency of managing the genetic resources .
DNA banking is an emerging technique in genetic con-
servation, complementinggene banking .
International Treaties Impacting the Use of Genetic
Resources and Edible Ectomyrrhizal Mushrooms
To incorporate human and environmental safe-
guards in IP and ownership rights, equitable use of
EEMM genetic resources should beguided by consistent
global policies under international treaties, similar to
● ?ConventiononBiological Diversity (CBD) under the
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) ,
● ?Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights ( TRIPS) under the World Trade
Organization (WTO) ,
● ?International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources for
Food and Agriculture ( ITPGR) under the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) ,
● ?Budapest Treaty for the International Recognition of
Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposesof Patent
Procedure under theWorld Intellectual Property Or-
ganization (WIPO) , and
● ?Global Biodiversity Information Facility ( GBIF ) in
conjunction with the Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) .
Implementing their provisions domestically, these
401 云 南 植 物 研 究 增刊ⅩⅥ
international treaties allow considerable scopeand flexi-
bility for countries to take account of local , social , cul-
tural and economic conditions and to require acceptance
of theminimumstandards of protection agreed to by the
negotiating States . An agreement that addresses the ac-
cess to andbenefit-sharingof EEMM genetic resources,
the transfer of environmentally sound technologies, the
effect of laws and regulations, the management of risks
associated with preservation and distribution of genetic
materials needs to be established and enforced . To de-
velop, implement and enforce all the agreements per-
taining to such policies, IP of the EEMM genetic re-
sources should no longer be considered as an inert legal
right, but as an economic asset that realizes the poten-
tial of innovation and creativity .
The Convention on Biological Diversity
The CBD and the TRIPS agreement provide the
basic framework for formation of relevant policies and
laws, emphasizing the linkagebetween IP of genetic re-
sources and sustainable economic development . Clearly
the issueof access and benefit-sharing is a top priority
for both the CBD and theTRIPS agreement . The CBD
recognizes national sovereign rights over all genetic re-
sources and establishes international rules on access,
which is subject to theprinciplesof prior informed con-
sent and the sharingof benefits . This replaces the ear-
lier notion, adopted by the FAO ( through the Commis-
sion of Plant Genetic Resources) , in which genetic re-
sources were a common heritage of humankind and
therefore were freely available to all bona fide users .
However, a sovereign right is distinct from a property
right over individual resources, and thus anational law
is required to establish the individual property rights .
The right of access is thus dependent upon the condi-
tions established by the legislation and competent au-
thorities of each contracting party or country . The CBD
currently has 190 parties-189 States and the European
Community-who have committed themselves to its three
main objectives: ( 1 ) the conservation of biodiversity,
( 2) the sustainableuseof its components, and ( 3) the
equitable sharingof the benefits arising from utilization
of genetic resources . This legally binding convention
came into force on 29 December 1993 .
Parties of theCBD meet at abiennial meeting ( the
Conferenceof the Parties, or COP) and agree on deci-
sions, which then become part of the CBD . For exam-
ple, theBonnGuidelines on Access toGenetic Resourc-
es and Fair and Equitable Sharing of the Benefits Aris-
ing out of their Utilization, adopted by the COP in
2002 , provideguidance for governments developing laws
and policies and for users and providers developing poli-
cies, agreements and codes of conduct . An international
framework, adopted by COP in 2004, is setup to help
access progress toward the“2010 Biodiversity Target”
and identify focal areas, such as the status and trends of
the components of biodiversity . The Bonn Guidelines
further suggest elements for use in Material Transfer
Agreements (MTAs) and provide a useful indicative list
of benefits that may be shared . In addition, the Carta-
gena Biosafety Protocol , adopted by COP in 2002 , pro-
motes the safe transfer, handling and useof livingmodi-
fied organisms resulting from modern biotechnology .
Other examples related to biodiversity, environment and
trade include theGlobal Taxonomy Initiative (GTI) , the
CBD Clearing House Mechanisms on the Electronic
Treatment of the Information Related Transfer of Micro-
biological Resources, the Global Strategy for Plant Con-
servation ( GSPC ) , the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITIES) , Pew Conservation Scholars′Suggested Ethi-
cal Guidelines for Accessing and ExploringBiodiversity,
the FAO′s Code of Conduct for Plant Germplasm Col-
lecting and Transfer , the Mataatua Declaration on Cul-
tural and Intellectual Property Rights of Indigenous Peo-
ples, the Micro-organisms Sustainable Use and Access
Regulation International Codeof Conduct (MOSAICC) ,
and the OECD Best Practice Guidelines for Biological
Resource Centers . TheCBD isnot retroactivebut is ap-
plyingonly to material that is provided by countries of
origin that are Parties to the Convention, and only to
material that was obtained after theCBD came in force .
The Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights
The TRIPS agreement is the most comprehensive
501增刊ⅩⅥ JONG and LIU: Legal IssuesSurrounding the Genetic Resource Conservation and Useof Edible . . .
international mechanismever negotiated and adoptedon
IP rights . Its provisions constitute minimum standards
with regard to thegrant, scope and use of patent rights
for biotechnological inventions . Its goals are ( 1) to re-
duce distortions and impediments to international trade,
(2) to promote effective and adequate protection of IP
rights, and (3) to ensurethat measures and procedures
to enforce IP rights do not themselves become barriers
to international trade . TRIPS stresses that patents shall
be available for any inventions in all fields of technolo-
gy without discrimination as to the place of invention
and whether products areimported or locally produced,
provided that they are new, involve an inventive pro-
cess and are capableof industrial application . Howev-
er, the differentiation between inventions and discover-
ies and between the concepts of novelty and the inven-
tive step arenot defined in theTRIPS agreement . Even
though equitableownership of EEMM genetic resources
is determined in the same way as ownership of patent
rights, patent protection does not confer ownership of
thesubjectmatter, such asEEMM genetic material , on
thepatent owner . Moreover, theTRIPS agreement does
not create a“uniform law”, but leaves different de-
greesof freedomfor legislation at thenational or region-
al level . Thus, the relationship between the TRIPS
agreement and other instruments of international law,
particularly the CBD and the ITPGR , has been and is
still debatable, including the controversial questions
whether plants, animals and DNA sequences should be
made patentable and whether the disclosure of originof
biological resources should be required in the patent
claim . TheTRIPS agreement came into forceon 1 Jan-
uary 1995 .
The International Treaty for Plant Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture
The ITPGR is developed fromthe underlyingprin-
ciples of the CBD for food and agriculture . Unlike the
CBD which is more oriented to bilateral arrangements,
the ITPGR establishes a multilateral system for access
and benefit-sharing that covers a list of crops (and crop
complexes) and a number of forages of importance to
food and agriculture . It is the first legally binding in-
ternational treaty regarding plant genetic resource regu-
lations concerning intellectual and other property rights
and the implementationof standardizedmaterial transfer
agreements (MTAs) within the multilateral system . Its
aims are (1 ) to ensure theconservation and sustainable
useof plant genetic resources as a basis for food and
nutrition security, ( 2) to promote a fair and equitable
sharingof thebenefit arisingfromtheir use, and ( 3) to
assist countries and institutions responsible for conserv-
ing these resources in identifying priorities for action
and building programs to attain these purposes . As the
ITPGR attempts to attain its objectives through its close
links with theCBD, the conditions for the relationship
between theTRIPS agreement and the ITPGR aresimi-
lar to the one between the TRIPS agreement and the
CBD . However, unlikemany other international instru-
ments and conventions, the ITPGR has retrospective ef-
fect, so it applies no matter when the material being
transferred is acquired . The ITPGR came into forceon
29 June 2004 .
The Budapest Treaty for the International
Recognition of Deposit of Microorganisms
for the Purposes of Patent Procedure
The most important featureof theBudapest Treaty
is that apatent deposit that has been madewith an in-
dependent, recognized patent depository ( an Interna-
tional Depository Authority, or IDA approved by WI-
PO) satisfies the requirement of all the countries that
signed theBudapest Treaty . Such adeposit is also rec-
ognized by the Paris Convention Treaty (PCT) and the
EuropeanPatent Convention ( EPC ) as well as by the
United States Patent and Trade Office ( USPTO) . To
date, 59 countries worldwide are party to the Treaty
and 35 institutions have acquired the status of the IDA
under the Treaty . The patent deposit is not a part of
the patent statute . It has been created by case law and
practices, in which the possibility of repeating a bio-
technological invention is guaranteed by means of the
deposit that is generally available ( released) to third
parties at the time of the disclosure . The Treaty
requires that the deposited material be tested for via-
bility . The termof thedeposit is30 years fromthedate
601 云 南 植 物 研 究 增刊ⅩⅥ
of deposit and at least 5 years after the most recent re-
quest for a sample . The Treaty does not address the
timing of deposit or release . Access to the deposited
material is regulated by theparticular patent systemun-
der which the application was filed . Under the U . S .
law, access to the deposited material can take place
only after thegrantingof thepatent . Under theEurope-
an law, the material may be obtained after publication
of the application through an independent expert and
only for experimental purposes . As part of the patent
description (e.g ., European Union and Japan) or the
enablement required in the patent specification ( e.g .,
theUnited States) for patentibility, patent deposits can
be used in providing evidence or proof of patent inval-
idity or infringement after the relevant patent is grant-
ed . If there is failure to supply deposited materials or
no full correspondence between the description ( or
specification) and the deposited material , the granted
patent ( or claim) should be deemed void .
The Global Biodiversity Information Facility
The GBIF is an international scientific co-opera-
tive project which is based on a multilateral agreement
among countries, economies and international organiza-
tions as a result of a recommendation of the OECD Me-
gascience Forum . Its membership today includes 47
countries (26 voting participants and 21 associated par-
ticipants) and 32 international organizations . Each
member forms a GBIF nodeor nodes that are theback-
bone of GBIF system; and the vast majority of GBIF′s
scientific and technical work is doneby individuals and
institutions working through thenodes . Its missions are
(1) to make world′s biodiversity data freely and uni-
versally availablevia the Internet, (2 ) to use common
standards for data and megadata, ( 3) to facilitate link-
ages among species, molecular, genetic and ecosystem
data, (4 ) to assurethat data providers retain control of
their own data, and (5 ) to gain access to others′data
by sharing theirs . To date, more than 130 million
biodiversity records have been mobilized and are avail-
able for download to help Parties in the implementation
of their national obligation under the CBD . The GBIF
claims no IP rights on data served through its portal .
Each provider decides which data to serve and sets its
own policy regarding re-use of such data . Most provid-
ers do not allow the commercial use of data . In addit-
ion, the advanced instrumentation and systems which
greatly speed up genome sequencing and genotypic and
phenotypic analyses have brought remarkable growth in
the number of genetic sequence information registered
in the threemajor international databases, namelyGen-
Bank ( National Center for Biotechnology Information,
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland,
USA) , EMBL ( European Molecular Biology Laborato-
ry, Nucleotide Sequence Database, Hinxton, UK ) and
DDBJ (DNA Data Bank of Japan, Mishima, Japan) .
These data arepublicly available for genome analysisof
various species and areupdated on a daily basis . Asof
June 15 , 2007 , the registered base sequence informa-
tion in GenBank?NCBI has reached 73 , 078 , 143 en-
tries corresponding to 77 , 248 , 690 , 945 nucleotide
base pairs .
Material Transfer Agreements
International regulatory cooperation is critical in
setting standards and achieving international harmoniza-
tion for trade and investment . However, how these in-
ternational treaties?agreements affect the access to and
benefit-sharing of genetic resources is largely unre-
solved . Legal issues with respect to the access, trans-
fer, exchange and patentingof EEMM genetic resources
require immediate attention toensure that resources and
associated technology are fully used . One method of
gaining the value of EEMM genetic resources through
IP is the useof a Material Transfer Agreement (MTA)
as defined by the CBD and the ITPGR . An MTA is a
legal contractual arrangement that is protected by law
that is neither publicly recognized nor registered with
the government . It is generally utilized when propri-
etary material and?or information, which has been
characterized to somedegree, but is not otherwise pro-
tected by IP rights, is exchanged for safekeeping pur-
poses and research or commercial use . The basic as-
pects of an MTA generally contain ( 1 ) ownership
( e.g ., property rights ) , ( 2 ) access restrictions
( e.g ., no sharingwith third parties) , (3 ) use restric-
701增刊ⅩⅥ JONG and LIU: Legal IssuesSurrounding the Genetic Resource Conservation and Useof Edible . . .
tions (e. g ., research use only) , ( 4 ) benefit-sharing
( e.g ., separate agreements required for commercial-
ization) , ( 5 ) disclosure restrictions ( e.g ., prepubli-
cation review ) , and ( 6 ) liability indemnification
(e.g ., biosafety, biosecurity) . As shown in Appendix
1 , the Bonn Guidelines provide a full list of suggested
elements for use in MTAs, including some of monetary
and non-monetary benefits that can be shared . Howev-
er, the costs and burdens associated with the develop-
ment of an effective MTA vis-à-vis the implementation
of the provisions of various genetic resource-related in-
ternational treaties?conventions are considerably high
for both the provider and the recipient . To minimize
these high transaction costs that such bilateral contracts
involve, the ITPGR calls for implementation of a stan-
dardized universal MTA for all ITPGR transfers through
multilateral arrangements . In the United States, the
NIH has published the Uniform Biological Material
Transfer Agreement ( UBMTA ) and a Single Letter
Agreement for the transfer of non-proprietary biological
material . Today, there are 320 institutions signed onto
the UBMTA master agreement, and for those entities,
material transfers under UBMTA terms only need to be
recorded but not negotiated . Although the signed cont-
racts such as MTAs are the powerful tools in trade se-
cret and customary laws in which registration is not
required, they may be effectively meaningless without
active follow-up actions, such as monitoring, tracking
and?or periodic reviews .
Concluding Remarks
The legal situationwith respect to biodiversity and
traditional knowledge, health and environmental safety,
and trade and investment isvery complex, and interna-
tional regulations are just being developed . Internation-
al access and benefit-sharingof EEMM genetic resourc-
es under the termsof various treaties?conventions (such
CBD?UNEP, TRIPS?WTO, ITPGR?FAO, GBIF?
OECD, Budapest Treaty?WIPO) must be fully recog-
nized and respected . National frameworks on protection
of IP and proprietary rights must ensure that interna-
tional efforts to conserve and sustainably utilize EEMM
genetic resources are duly regulated and rewarded . The
EEMM genetic resources, as IP assets, are fostered
and maintained not only for advancement of scienceand
technology but also for future commercial development .
It is important to underline that the objectives of CBD
and TRIPS agreement do not conflict with each other
from a legal perspective . International law, national
legislation and contractual arrangements are comple-
mentary instruments in achieving the objectives of ac-
cess to genetic resources and benefit-sharing and ensur-
ing mutually supportive interplay between these princi-
ples and IP protection .
Concerns about access to IP assets of EEMM ge-
netic resources have recently surfaced because of the
reluctance of IP owners to allow use for research that
may lead to commercial applications . In a situation
where strong IP right production has been established,
foreign companies can be expected to bemore interest-
ed in exporting their EEMM genetic material and prod-
ucts derived fromthismaterial to acountrywith such IP
protection . Lack of IP right protection will bar trade .
Therefore, IP assets canbe effectively beused to facil-
itate sustainable economic development . More laborato-
ries, institutions, and companies are forming strategic
alliances ( such as collaborative research agreements,
joint research and development agreements, joint ven-
tures, and manufacturing and distribution alliances) to
exploit the economic valueof EEMM genetic materials,
thus providing scientists and biotechnologists with the
tools they need to bring their research materials and
products to the marketplace .
Selected Websites:
Amer ?ican Type Culture Collection, Manassas, VA , USA (ATCC) : http:
??www. atcc.org?
Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD) : http:??www.biodiv. org?
Conv ?ention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES) : http:??www?cites. org?
Cons ?ortiumfor the Barcodeof Life, Smithsonian Institution′s National Mu-
seum of Natural History, Washington DC , USA ( CBOL ) :
http:??www.barcoding. si . edu?
Cons ?ultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR ) : ht-
tp:??www. cgiar .org?
DNA ?Data Bank of Japan, Mishima, Japan ( DDBJ ) : http:??ww-
w. ddbj . nig. ac. j?
Euro ?pean Bioinformatics Institute, Cambridge, UK ( EBI ) : http:??
www. ebi . ac. uk?
801 云 南 植 物 研 究 增刊ⅩⅥ
Euro ?pean Molecular Biology Laboratory, Cambridge, UK (EMBL ) : http:
?www. embl .org?
Food 9and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, I taly
( FAO) : http:??www. fao.org?
Gene +tic Sequence Database Hosted at the NIH-NCBI , MD, USA ( Gen-
Bank) : http:??www. ncbi . nlm. nih.gov?Genbank?index.html?
Germ 3plasm Resources Information Network, USDA-ARS, USA ( GRIN) :
http:??www. ars-grin. gov?
Glob ?al Biodiversity Information Facility, Copenhagen, Denmark ( GBIF) :
http:??www.gbif .org?
Glob ?al Strategy for Plant Conservation ( GSPC) : http:??www. biodiv.org?
programmes?cross-cutting?plant?
Glob ?al Taxonomy Initiative ( GTI ) : http:??www. biodiv.org?programmes?
cross-cutting?taxonomy?
Inte ?rnational Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy ( IPGRI ) :
http:??www. ipgri . cgiar .org?
International Society for Biological and Environmental Repositories ( IS-
BER) : http:?www. isber.org?
Inte ?rnational Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,
FAO ( ITPGR ) : http:??fao.org?ag?cgrfa?itpgr. htm?
Micr ?o-Organisms Sustainable Use and Access Regulation International Code
of Conduct (MOSAICC) : http:??www.belspo. be?bccm?mosaicc?
Syst ?em-wide Information Network for Genetic Resources ( SINGER) : ht-
tp:??singer.grinfo. net?
Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, WTO ( TRIPS) :
http:??www. wto.org?english?tratop— e?trips— e.htm?
World Data Center for Microorganisms ( WDCM ) : http:??ww-
w.wdcm.org?
World Federation for Culture Collections ( WFCC) : http:??www.wfcc. i-
nfo?
World Trade Organization , Geneva, Switzerland ( WTO ) : http:??
www. wto.org?
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
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901增刊ⅩⅥ JONG and LIU: Legal IssuesSurrounding the Genetic Resource Conservation and Useof Edible . . .