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犠犺犪狋犺犪狊犃狌狊狋狉犪犾犻犪狀犪犵狉狅狀狅犿狔犮狅狀狋狉犻犫狌狋犲犱狋狅
狑狅狉犾犱犳狅狅犱狊犲犮狌狉犻狋狔犻狀狋犺犲犾犪狊狋20狔犲犪狉狊,
犪狀犱狑犺犪狋犾犻犲狊犪犺犲犪犱?
ClementsRJ
(29HolmesCrescent,CampbelACT2612,Australia)
犃犫狊狋狉犪犮狋:Australianagronomy(researchandextensiononland,water,soilandplantmanagementforfieldcropand
pastureproduction,performedbyagronomistsbornand/oremployedinAustralia)contributestoworldfoodsecuri
tymainlybyincreasingproductivity(yieldincreasesperunitareaorinput,orperheadoflivestock).Inthelast20
yearsAustralianagronomyhasimprovedworldfoodsecuritybyunderpinningincreasedproductionoffieldcropsand
livestockthattheoreticalycouldsupportabout30milionpeopleperyearwithgrainplusenoughmeat,edibleoil
anddairyproductstoadddietaryqualityandflavour.Thisassumesthatthefoodisinfacteaten,andnotlostpost
harvestorusedforalternativepurposes.Thecalculatednumbersofpeoplewhocouldbefedinvolvenumerousas
sumptionsandarefraughtwithuncertainty.AboutonethirdoftheincreasedproductionhasbeenachievedinAus
traliaandtwothirdsindevelopingcountries,mainlyinAsia.Internationaly,manybenefitshavecomefrombilater
alprojectsfundedbyACIARand/orAusAID,involvingscientistsfromAustraliaandadevelopingcountry,often
withlinkstoanInternationalAgriculturalResearchCentre.Australianagronomistshavealsocontributedtofoodse
curitythroughtrainingactivitiesandthroughleadershippositionsinothercountriesandinternationalorganisations,
butthesebenefitsareimpossibletoquantify.Lookingahead,inertiainthesystem(technicalinnovationsstiltobe
adopted,andprojectscurrentlyinprogress)suggeststhatthislevelofcontributionwilbemaintainedforanother
decadeorso;beyondthattimeframethecontributionbyAustralianagronomistsisessentialyunpredictable.
犓犲狔狑狅狉犱狊:Australia;agronomy;foodsecurity
犆犔犆狀狌犿犫犲狉:S3;F316.11 犇狅犮狌犿犲狀狋犮狅犱犲:犃 犃狉狋犻犮犾犲犐犇:10045759(2013)04000117
犇犗犐:10.11686/cyxb20130401
犆狅狀犮犲狆狋狊,犿犲狋犺狅犱狊犪狀犱犪狆狆狉狅犪犮犺犲狊
In“TheHitchhiker’sGuidetotheGalaxy”,DouglasAdams[1]proposedthattheanswerto“theultimate
questionoflife,theuniverseandeverything”was42.Thecomputer,DeepThoughtthathadbeenconstructed
todothecalculationsexplainedthattheanswerwasincomprehensiblebecausethequestionersdidnotunder
standwhattheywereasking.Iapproachthistopicinasimilarspiritofentertainmentandadventure.Thetopic
requiressomedefinitionsattheoutsetinordertodefinetheframeworkforthispaper.Theanswertotheques
tioninthetitledependsonthedefinitionsandassumptions.Ifthesearechanged,theanswerwilalsochange;
andintheend,theanswerisjustafirstapproximation.
犇犲犳犻狀犻狋犻狅狀狊
Here,Iwilrestricttheword“agronomy”tomeanthescienceofland,water,soilandplantmanagement
forfieldcropandpastureproduction.ModerndefinitionssometimesincludeplantimprovementbutItakea
第22卷 第4期
Vol.22,No.4
草 业 学 报
ACTAPRATACULTURAESINICA
1-17
2013年8月
2012“CapturingOpportunitiesandOvercomingObstaclesinAustralianAgronomy”
Proceedingsofthe16thASAConference,1418October2012,Armidale,Australia.Websitewww.agronomy.org.au
Biography:ClementsRJ,academicianoftheAustralianAcademyofEngineering.Email:clements@netspeed.com.au
narrowerview.
“Australianagronomy”isamysteriousandnebulousconcept.Somereadersmightassumethatsomeas
pectsofagronomyarepeculiarlyAustralianinnatureparticularapproaches,applicationsorconcepts.Austral
ianagronomistsdohaveaparticularfocusonwateruseefficiencyandnutrientmanagement,andwithafewex
ceptionstheyworkmainlyinwaterandnutrientlimitedcropproductionsystems;butagronomyisaglobalsci
ence.Otherreadersmightassumethatthistalkshouldberestrictedtothecontributionofagronomytothe
productionofcropsinAustralia,orincountrieswithclimatesorsoilslikethoseinAustralia.But“Australian”
agronomistshaveachievedsomeoftheirgreatestsuccessesincountriesthathaveverydifferentclimates,soils
andfarmingsystems.Finaly,somereadersmightassumethatweareherediscussingnotAustralianagrono
my,butAustralianagronomists;butAustralia’sresearchorganisationsemployagronomistswhowereborn
andtrainedinmanycountries,andwhoseinfluencereflects(atleastinpart)theirpriortrainingandprofession
alexperience.Here,Ihavetendedtodefine“Australianagronomy”asresearchandextensionundertakenby
agronomistsbornoremployedinAustralia.Thisdoesnotmeanthataltheagronomictechnologyorknowhow
hasbeendevelopedinAustralia.
“Worldfoodsecurity”isanotherflexibleandevolvingconcept,withdozensofdefinitions.Thegamehas
movedonfromthesupplysidethinkingofthe1980s(egfoodproduction/supplyandpricestability),toinclude
demandsideissues(foodaccess,abilitytopayforfood,andfoodpreferences).Thus,globalfoodsecurityis
nowlinkedtopovertyreductionandhumanhealth.Onedefinition[2]states:“foodsecurity[is]asituationthat
existswhenalpeople,ataltimes,havephysical,socialandeconomicaccesstosufficient,safeandnutritious
foodthatmeetstheirdietaryandfoodpreferencesforanactiveandhealthylife”.Suchastateisalmostimpos
sibletoenvisage,yetalonemeasure.Thereisnosingle,simplemeasureoffoodsecurity.Proxyindicatorsin
cludeaveragepercapitaavailabilityofstaplefoods(ieapparentconsumption;thisincludesproduction,im
ports,exports,nonfoodusesandwastage,andthusoverestimatesfoodconsumption).Here,Ihavechosen
toestimatenumbersofpeopleactualyfed,usingwebavailabledata(mostlyfromvariousFAOsources)on
productionandapparentconsumptionandusingarangeofnumberstocovervariationinapparentconsumption
betweencountries.Foodproductionisstilamajorfactor,butismodifiedbytradeanddistributionissues,
consumerexpenditurepatterns(includingtheextentofpoverty),andwithincountryvariabilityinpurchasing
power(asmeasured,forexample,bytheGiniindex).Thedefinitionandapproachalow(infact,require)one
toincludefeedinggraintolivestockinordertofacilitatetheshifttowardsmoreanimalproteininhumandiets
asacontributiontoworldfoodsecurity.However,itdiscountsfoodsecuritybenefitsthatresultfromresearch
thatleadstomoresustainableproduction,lowerfoodproductioncostsand/orcheaperprices.
Humandietaryenergyrequirementsvarytremendouslywithage,sex,bodyweight,levelofactivityetc.
AccordingtoWikipedia,theaverageminimumenergyrequirementisabout1800kcal(7530kJ)/day.Thisis
consistentwiththebodyofdataprovidedbyFAO[3].ThepercapitaconsumptionrangeIhaveusedforcrops
suchasriceandwheatis150-500g/day.Sincericeandwheatcontainaround350-380kcal/100g,theupper
leveltheoreticalywouldprovidethetotaldailyenergyrequirementsofan“average”person;butrelativelyfew
peopleconsumeonlyrice,oronlywheat.Itseemsmoremeaningfultospeakofriceorwheatbaseddiets.
ThemainstaplecropsthatfundamentalyunderpinworldfoodsecurityareshowninTable1.Someof
thesecropsareprincipalyfedtolivestock,andinthesecasesitisnecessarytoconvertgrainproductionfigures
tolivestockproductsusingfoodconversionratios,dressingpercentagesandboneoutpercentagesthatareavail
ableintheliterature,beforethenestimatingthenumbersofpeoplesupported.Toconvertgrainproductionto
ediblemeat,Ihaveassumedthatgrainwilbefedtobeefcattleataconversionrateof7∶1(ie1kgoflive
weightforevery7kgofgrain),adressingpercentageof55% (ie55kgofdressedcarcassfrom100kgoflive
weight)andaboneoutrateof70% (ie70kgofediblemeatfrom100kgofdressedcarcass).Otherkindsof
2 ACTAPRATACULTURAESINICA(2013) Vol.22,No.4
livestockareusualymoreefficientthanbeefcattlein
convertingfeedtoliveweightgain.Conversionrates
arealsoinfluencedbyotherfactors.Ingeneral,my
conversionsareconservative,ietheywilunderesti
matetheamountofmeatproducedfromgrainfed
livestock.
InthecaseofmeatIhaveassumedthatmost
peoplewil useittoaddflavourandqualitytoa
wheatorricebaseddiet.Aratherarbitrarydailyin
take25-50g/personisusedlevelsthatmightbeap
propriatetoadevelopingcountry(Australianscon
sumeabout100gbeef/day,andabout130gred
meat/day).Beefcontains160-300kcal/100g,so
thisintakecorrespondsto40-150kcal/(capita·day).
犃狋狋狉犻犫狌狋犻狅狀狅犳犫犲狀犲犳犻狋狊:犆狅狀犮犲狆狋犻狅狀狏犲狉狊狌狊犻犿狆犾犲
犿犲狀狋犪狋犻狅狀
Inassessingandattributingimpact,itishelpful
todistinguishbetweenconception(thegenesisoro
riginationofanideaorpractice)andimplementation
(theapplicationorexecutionofapreconceivedidea
orpractice,oftenrequiringconsiderable modifica
tion).Thedifferencescanbeilustratedthroughtwo
practicesthatarerelevanttothispaper:theapplica
tionoffertilisertocrops,particularnearthesown
plants,andtheuseofreducedtilage.
Thegenesisoftheapplicationofnutrientsto
cropsislostinprehistory.Whiletheuseofmodern
fertilisersoriginatedwiththefertilisersthemselvesin
犜犪犫犾犲1 犌犾狅犫犪犾犪狀犱犃狌狊狋狉犪犾犻犪狀狆狉狅犱狌犮狋犻狅狀犻狀2010狅犳犮狉狅狆狊
狊犻犵狀犻犳犻犮犪狀狋犳狅狉狑狅狉犾犱犳狅狅犱狊犲犮狌狉犻狋狔(犛狅狌狉犮犲:
犉犃犗狅狀犾犻狀犲犱犪狋犪犫犪狊犲)
Crop Production
(world)(Mt)
Production
(Australia)1(Mt)
Australia
(%ofworld)
Wheat 651 22.1 3.4
Rice(paddy) 672 0.2 0.03
Maize 844 0.3 0.04
Potatoes 324 1.3 0.4
Cassava 230 - -
Sweetpotatoes 107 0.05 0.05
Bananas 102 0.3 0.3
Coconuts 62 - -
Barley 123 7.3 5.9
Sorghum 56 1.6 2.9
Rapeseed(canola) 59 2.2 3.7
Soybeans 262 0.06 0.02
Oats 20 1.4 7.0
Lentils 4.58 0.14 0.03
Fababeans 4.3 0.2 4.7
Lupins 0.934 0.629 67.3
Sugarcane2 1685 31.5 1.9
Tomatoes 146 0.5 0.3
1:ProductionofwheatinAustraliain2010wasaboveaverageforthe
decade,butbelowtheproductionrecordofapproximately29 Mtin
2011/12.Australianproductionofricewaswelbelowthenormallevel
(approximately1.0Mt).
2:Thefiguresareforgreencane,notforsugar.Australiacurrently
producesabout5.4Mtofsugarperyear(about3.5%oftheworldto
tal),andprovidesabout9%oftheinternationaltrade.
themid19thCentury,thepracticeofapplyingorganicnutrientsprobablyoriginatedsoonafterthedomestication
oflivestock,6500-8500yearsBC.Duringthe20thCentury,theplacementofnutrientsnearthefavoured
plant(s)receivedmuchattention.Theconceptofmicrodosing(theplacementofsmal,suboptimalamounts
offertilisernearthesownplants)probablyaroseinKenyaduringtheimplementationofanAustralianCentre
forInternationalAgriculturalResearch(ACIAR)1projectinthe1990s(moreonthislater),althoughitmay
haveoriginatedearlier.Aftertheirconceptionandearlytesting,theimplementationofalthesepracticesona
scalethatissignificantintermsofglobalfoodsecurityhasrequiredendlessexperimentationandmodification
andthepersonalexertionofmanypeopleoftenunconnectedtotheoriginatoroftheidea.
Theploughoriginatedabout10000yearsago;againitsoriginsarelostinprehistory,anditwaspreceded
bysimplerformsofgrounddisturbancetofavourcropestablishment.Itsbenefitsincludedtheconservationof
soilmoisture,includingbythecontrolofweeds.Thedevelopmentofmodernzerotilageagriculture[4]was
madepossiblebytheinventionofmodernherbicides,particularlyParaquatin1955(releasedtocommercein
1961).ZerotilageresearchcommencedintheUSAinthelate1940s,andthepracticeofzerotilagecom
3第22卷第4期 草业学报2013年
mencedonfarms(withParaquat)in1962-twoyearsbeforethefirstexperimentswereundertakeninAustral
ia.Thus,theconceptisnotnew,anddidnotoriginateinAustralia.However,Australianowleadstheworld
intheadoptionofzerotilage,andhascontributedagooddealofadaptiveresearchbothinAustraliaandother
countries(moreonthislater).
Thepointisthatitisonethingtocomeupwithanidea;itisanotherthingtomakeitworkinpracticeand
toscaleituptomakeasignificantdifferencetoworldfoodsecurity.Bydefinition,notmanypeoplecanbeorig
inators,butmanycanbepractitioners.Therearenottoomanynewideasaround,butthereisendlessscopefor
ingeniousadaptationandimplementation.
Itisalsoimportanttorecognisethatagronomicinnovationstaketime,andthe20yeartimeframeofthis
paperincludesinnovationsthatwerecommencedwelbefore1992,butwhicharestilbeingadopted.
犃犱犲犳犪狌犾狋犮犪犾犮狌犾犪狋犻狅狀狌狊犻狀犵犫犻犫犾犻狅犿犲狋狉犻犮狊
Totheextentthatinnovationdependsonscientificprogressreportedinthescientificliterature,afirstap
proximationofthecontributionofAustralianagronomytotheincreaseinworldfoodproductioninthelast20
yearscanbeobtainedfromabibliometricanalysis.Dataspecificalyforagronomicpublicationshavenotbeen
found,butdataforbroaderaggregationsthatincludeagronomyareavailable[5,6].Intermsoftotalscientific
publications,Australiacurrentlyprovidesabout3.2%oftheworldtotal(itssharehasincreasedsteadilyinthe
last20years,from2.2%in1993),andinthebroadfieldofagriculturalscienceAustraliacurrentlyprovidesa
bout3.8% (Australianscienceisrelativelyspecialisedtowardsagriculturalscience).TheimpactofAustralia’s
agriculturalscience(asmeasuredbycitationindices)isabout30%higherthanitsshareofworldpublications.
Assumingthatgrowthinworldfoodproductionissolelyduetoagriculturalscienceandtechnology(amostun
likelyassumption),Australianagriculturalsciencemayhavecontributedabout4% oftheincreaseinworld
foodsupplyinthelast20years.Theworldpopulationincreasedfrom5.5bilionin1992to7bilionin2012,
andworldfoodsuppliesincreasedmoreorlessintandem.Australianagriculturalsciencemaythereforehave
generatedenoughfoodtosupportanadditional60milionpeople.Assumingfurtherthatfiguresforagronomic
researchareofthesameorderasthoseforagriculturalscienceasawhole,andthatabouthalftheincreasein
worldfoodproductionhasbeenduetoimprovedagronomy,Australianagronomymayhavegeneratedenough
foodtosupportanadditional30milionpeopleperyear.Whilethisanalysisishighlyspeculativeandneeds
morework,themoredetailedanalysisinthispapersuggestsitmaybequiteclosetothemark.
TheapproachtakenbelowhasbeentoanalysethecontributionofAustralianagronomytoAustralianfood
production,andthentoexaminethecontributionsAustralianagronomistshavemadetointernationalagricul
ture.Theemphasisisonfoodproductionbecausemostoftheagronomiccontributionislikelytohavebeenin
thisarearatherthaninpostharvesttechnologyandfooddistribution(trade犲狋犮).
犆狅狀狋狉犻犫狌狋犻狅狀狅犳犃狌狊狋狉犪犾犻犪狀犪犵狉狅狀狅犿狔狋狅犃狌狊狋狉犪犾犻犪狀犳狅狅犱狆狉狅犱狌犮狋犻狅狀
犚犪狋犻狅狀犪犾犲
Australianagronomycancontributetoworldfoodsecuritybyunderpinningfoodcropandlivestockproduc
tioninAustraliaandexportingthesurplus.Byglobalstandards,Australiaisnotamajorproducerofmoststa
plecrops(Table1).Amongthe8-10cropsofmajorsignificancetoworldfoodsecurity(thoselistedfirstin
theTable)onlyforwheat,barleyandsorghumdoesAustralia’sshareofworldproductionriseabove1%.
Morethanhalfoftheworld’sfoodenergyisprovidedbythreegraincrops(wheat,riceandmaize),andAus
traliaproduceslessthan1%ofthecombinedglobalharvest,almostalintheformofwheat.Australia’sshare
4 ACTAPRATACULTURAESINICA(2013) Vol.22,No.4
oftheworldproductionofpotatoesglobalythe4thmostsignificantstaplecropislessthanonehalfofoneper
cent.IntheAsiaPacificregion,bananasandcoconutsaresignificantstaplecrops,andAustraliaproducesonly
0.3%oftheworld’sbananasandvirtualynococonuts.However,forafewcropsoflowerglobalsignificance
forfoodsecurity(oats,lupins,fababeansandcanola)Australiaproducesasignificantshareofworldproduc
tion.Australiaalsoproducesabout5Mtoftheworld’ssugarfromsugarcaneacropwhichshouldrealybe
givengreaterstatusasafoodsecuritycrop.
Despiteitsrelativelylowshareofworldgrainproduction,Australiaproducesmoregrainthanitneedsto
feeditspopulation,andthesurplusisexportedandcancontributetoworldfoodsecurity.Australianlivestock
productsarealsoexportedinconsiderablequantities.Mostoftheproductiondatainthefolowingsections
comefromABARES[7].
犠犺犲犪狋
About75%ofAustralia’swheatproductionisexported.About20%oftheglobalwheatharvestistraded
internationaly,andAustraliaprovides15%-20%oftheglobaltrade[8].Themarketisquitesegmentedand
competitive.Australia’smajormarketsareinAsia(Indonesia,SouthKorea,Japan,Malaysia,China)andthe
MiddleEast(Sudan,Yemen,Iraq,Egypt).
Overaperiodof100yearsAustralianwheatyields(grain/hectare)haveincreasedbothincrementalyand
inastepwisefashion[9],withmajorstepscorrespondingtotheadoptionofnewmanagementpackages(combi
nationsofnewagronomicpracticesandnewvarieties),including“breakthroughtechnologies”.Themostre
centstep,commencinginthe1980sandmaskedconsiderablybythemilenniumdrought,sawaverageyields
risefromlevelsofabout1.3-1.4t/hatoabout2.0t/hainthelasttwoyears(2010/11and2011/12).This
wasaperiodinwhichtheadoptionofconservationtilagewasasignificantmanagementchange,alongwith
greateruseofnitrogenfertiliserandbreakcrops.Agronomyunderpinnedabouthalfthisyieldadvance,andthe
interactionofmanagementandvarietiescontributedanotherpart.Therewasastrongfocusonwateruseeffi
ciencyandonthecaptureofthehighlyvariablerainfalanditsstorageinthesoil.Theareasowntowheatalso
increasedbyabout15%.Usingdecadalaverages,productionincreasedfromlevelsofabout15Mtinthe1980s
to20Mtinthedecadeto2009/10.Afteradjustingfortheincreasedareaandforproductivitygainsduetoplant
breeding,thesefiguressuggestthatAustralianagronomyhasliftedAustralianwheatproductionbyabout1.2
Mtperyearabovethelevelsofthe1980s(sufficienttofeed6.6-22.1 milionpeopleat150-500g/
capita·day).However,ifoneusescurrentlevelsof28-29Mtandcurrentgrainyieldsofaround2.0t/ha,
thenotionalcontributionrisesto4-5Mt/year(sufficienttofeed23-91milionpeople).Whetherthislevelof
productionismaintainedremainstobeseen.
犚犻犮犲
Australia,in“normal”years,producesabout1Mtofrice[about0.2%ofglobalproduction,sufficientto
support5-20milionpeopleatratesof150-500g/(capita·day)inricebaseddiets],butconsumesonlya
bout10kg/(capita·year)(althoughconsumptionisrisingrapidly).Becauseonlyabout5%-7% (25-30
Mt)ofglobalriceproductionistradedinternationalyandbecausemostoftheAustraliancropisexported,
Australianricemakesup3%-4%oftheexporttrade.Theprolongedmilenniumdroughtmaskedanyyield
increasesduetobettercropmanagement,sointermsofmyfoodsecurityindicatorthecontributionofagrono
mywasnegligible,evennegative!However,itisworthnotingthatatthetimeoftheglobalricepricespikein
2007/08,thefailureoftheAustraliancropwasraisedasapossiblecontributingfactor[10].Althoughthishas
5第22卷第4期 草业学报2013年
sincebeendiscounted[11],thedebatecontinuesanditcouldperhapsbearguedthatAustralianagronomycan
contributetoworldfoodsecuritybyhelpingtomaintainAustralia’sriceproduction(alreadyatglobalbest
practiceintermsofyieldandwateruseefficiency),andthusreducingpricefluctuations.Thisassumes,how
ever,thatAustralianriceproducersinfuturewilbealowedenoughwatertoirrigatetheircrops.
犛狌犵犪狉
Thereisalotofconfusedthinkingandcontradictoryliteratureabouttheimportanceofsugarcaneinfood
security.Itisconsideredbysometobean“industrial”or“estate”crop,whichcompeteswiththeproductionof
otherfoodcrops(evenmoresoifthecropisusedtoproducebioethanol),degradestheenvironmentandre
ducesagrobiodiversity,marginaliseswomensmalfarmersandadverselyaffectshumanhealth.Ontheother
hand,thesugarcaneindustrydoesprovideasaleablefoodproductandemployment(butmainlyformen?)and
thuscanincreasehouseholdincome;sugarisacomponentofmanydietsitprovides7%-9%oftheglobaldiet
aryintake[4,12,13],andinthatsenseisverymuchastaplefood;andbioethanolenhancesenergysecurity,and
mightreducethecostoffuelforagriculture.InAustralia,alongperiodofsugarcaneyielddecline(fromabout
1970-1990)ledtoamajoragronomicresearchprojectthatprovidedapackageofimprovedcroppingpractices
by2005[14].Wherethesearebeingadopted(currentadoptioninthecentralandnorthernareasis15%-20%;
Garside[14],personalcommunication),theyareliftingsugaryields,andthismayinturncontributetoworld
foodsecurity.Meanwhile,greencanetrashblanketing(adoptedfromthemid1980sonwards)andfertiliser
andpesticidemanagementpracticesemergingfromthefirstCooperativeResearchCentreforSustainableSugar
Production[15]arereducingtheenvironmentalimpactofsugarcaneproductioninAustralia,contributingtothe
longtermsustainabilityoftheindustryand,inthatsense,toworldfoodsecurity.
犆狅犪狉狊犲犵狉犪犻狀狊(犫犪狉犾犲狔,狊狅狉犵犺狌犿,狅犪狋狊,狋狉犻狋犻犮犪犾犲犪狀犱犿犪犻狕犲)
Australiaisasignificantproducerandexporterofbarley,sorghumandoats(Table1).Coarsegrainsare
usedmainlyforlivestockfeedbuttheyarealsoalstaplegrainsinthesensethatinsomepartsoftheworldthey
areconsumeddirectlyinhumandiets.Some25%-30%oftheglobalbarleycropisusedinmalting/brewing,
andthesameistrueoftheAustraliancrop;asacontributiontoworldfoodsecuritythisshouldbediscounted
andprobablydisregarded.Globaly,thedemandforcoarsegrainsisincreasingdisproportionatelyasmoregrain
isdivertedtoproducelivestockandbiofuel;thesametrendcanbeseeninAustralia,wherethetotalareasown
tocoarsegrainshasincreasedbyabout35%sincethe1980s,andwherethetotalproductionhasrisenbyabout
65% (fromlevelsofabout7Mtinthe1980stocurrentlevelsofabout12Mt)andthepercentageexportedhas
declinedfromabout50%inthe1980sto40%-45%atpresent.
犅犪狉犾犲狔.About60%ofAustralia’sbarleyisexported,andAustralia’sshareoftheglobalbarleytradeis
veryhigh(about30%ofthemaltingbarleytradeand20%ofthefeedbarleytrade).Australiaexportsfeed
barleytomanycountriesbutprincipalytoSaudiArabia,ChinaandJapan.Australia’sbarleycrophasalmost
doubledinthelast20years,fromaround3.76Mttoaround7.38Mt,mainlyduetoa60%increaseinthe
sownarea.Qualityrequirementsforbrewingconstrainyieldadvances,butyieldshaveincreasedfromaround
1.2t/hainthe1980stoaround1.7t/haatpresent-a22%yieldgain.Calculatingthepossiblecontributionof
Australianagronomyinthiscaserequiressomejugglingoffigures.Assumethat,withoutadvancesinvarieties
andmanagement,yieldsbothonthelandtraditionalysowntobarleyandontheadditionallandsowntobarley
wouldhavebeenthesameasinthe1980s,andthattheincreasedproductionwithoutadvanceswouldtherefore
havebeen3.76Mt+2.26Mt=6.02Mt.Ifwereducewhatremainsoftheproductiongain(ie7.38-6.02=
6 ACTAPRATACULTURAESINICA(2013) Vol.22,No.4
1.36Mt)by30%toremovethemaltingbarleyshareweareleftwith0.95Mtattributabletoadvancesintech
nology,andifwethenassumethat(asforwheat)Australianagronomywasresponsibleforabouthalfofthis,
agronomyproducedabout476ktoffeedbarley-enoughtoproduce26ktofbeefmeat,sufficientinturnto
provide25-50g/(person·day)to1.4-2.8milionpeople(Ofcourse,inthiscase,agooddealofthebarley
isusedinotheranimalindustries).
犛狅狉犵犺狌犿.Australia’sproductionofgrainsorghumhasincreasedbymorethan50%sincethe1980s,to
currentlevelsofabout2Mt,andmostofthishasbeenachievedthroughhigheryieldsperhectare.Thesehave
increasedfromaveragelevelsofabout2t/hainthe1980sto2.8t/haatpresent-a40%increase.MostAus
traliansorghumisnowuseddomesticaly;onlyabout20%isexported.Ifweassumethatabouthalfthepro
ductiongainhasbeenachievedbybetteragronomy,perhapsanadditional350ktofsorghumperyearsufficient
toproduceabout19.25ktofbeefmeat-enoughtofeed1.1-2.1milionpeopleatdailyratesof25-50g/head
-hasreflectedtheeffortsofAustraliaagronomists.
犗犪狋狊.OatsisamultipurposecropinAustralia,withasignificantpercentageofthecropgrazedduringthe
vegetativestageandwithanothershareusedforhighqualityhaywhichisfrequentlyexportedtoJapanandKo
rea.Interpretingproductiondataisthereforedifficult.However,thesownareahasfalensincethe1980s,as
hastotalgrainproduction(fromabout1.5Mttoabout1.3Mt);andyieldsperhectareareonly15%higher
thaninthe1980s.Thus,withthiscrop,atleastinrelationtotheharvestedgrainandtheindicatorbeingused,
thefoodsecuritycontributionbyAustralianagronomistsinthelast20yearshasbeennegligible.
犜狉犻狋犻犮犪犾犲.Whiletheproductionoftriticalehasincreasedthreefoldsincethe1980s(toabout500kt/year,
occasionalyexceeding800kt),mostoftheincreasehasresultedfromanincreaseinthesownarea.Mostofthe
AustraliancropisfedtopigsandchickensinAustralia[16],andmostofthismeatisconsumeddomesticaly.
ThecontributionbyAustralianagronomiststoglobalfoodsecurityviathiscrophasthusbeenlimited.
犗犻犾狊犲犲犱狊(犆犪狀狅犾犪)
Australianoilseedproductionisprimarily(70%-90%)canola,withcottonseed,peanuts,soybean犲狋犮.
makinguptherest.Here,thediscussionwilberestrictedtocanola.
CanolaisarelativelynewcropinAustralia.Duringthe1990sproductiongrewrapidly,from99ktin
1990/91toapeakof2.3Mtin1999[17,18].Intheyearssincethen,annualproductionhasaveragedabout1.7
Mtbuthasrecentlyagainreachedlevelsof2.3-2.4Mt.Improvedvarietieshavebeencriticaltothedevelop
mentoftheindustry,butthereisclearevidenceofthecontributionofagronomists.Ifweassume36%com
mercialyextractableoilcontent,andifweuse5-15kg/(capita·year)astheconsumptionofedibleoilinde
velopingcountries,theoilextractedfrom1.7MtofAustraliancanola(about612ktedibleoil)wouldmeet
currentconsumptionlevelsof41-122milionpeopleindevelopingcountries,provideditwasalusedforfood.
Ifagronomyunderpinnedonethirdofthis,theamountwouldbesufficientfor14-41milionpeople.
犌狉犪犻狀犾犲犵狌犿犲狊
Writingin1987,Hamblin[19]describedthedramaticexpansionoftheAustraliangrainlegumeindustry,
whichgrewfromanareaofabout200khain1980to1.3Mhain1986.Atthattime,lupins(774kha)andfield
peas(365kha)werethemaincrops.Theareapeakedsubsequentlyatabout2.3Mhainabout2002(dataare
hardtofind)producingabout2.5Mtofgrain.Sincethen,thetotalareahasdeclinedtoabout1.6Mhaandthe
relativeimportanceofthefivemaingrainlegumeshaschanged:thelupinareahasdeclined,thelentiland
chickpeaareashavegrownandthefieldpeaandfababeanareashavestayedroughlythesame.Production(to
7第22卷第4期 草业学报2013年
taledoveralfivegrains)hasaveragedabout1.8Mt/yearduringthelastdecade.Ignoringthelupincontribu
tion(whichaccountedforabouthalfthetotal,andwhichismainlyusedaslivestockfeed),theremaininggrain
(犮犪823kt/year)wouldprovide11-30kgperyearfor27-75milionpeople(India’scurrentconsumptionper
capitaisaround13kg/year).Ifagronomycontributedonlyonequarterofthis,itsshareofpulseproduction
gainswouldnotionalyfeed6.8-18.7milionpeople.Althoughthelandwouldprobablyotherwisehavebeen
usedforcerealoroilseedproduction,andalthoughitisalmostimpossibletoseparatethecontributionsofag
ronomyandplantbreeding,itisworthpointingoutthatpulsesareamajorstaplefoodinSouthAsia,where
mostoftheAustralianexportsareconsumed.
犘犪狊狋狌狉犲犪犵狉狅狀狅犿狔
Thereisnodoubtthatinthelast20yearsproductionofbeef,primelambanddairyproductshasincreased
significantly,butthekeyissuehereisthecontributionmadebypastureagronomy(cropagronomyhasbeen
coveredabove).Thechalengeismademoredifficultbythelackofgooddataonareasofsownpasture.
犇犪犻狉狔狆狉狅犱狌犮狋狊.AlmosthalfofAustralia’sannualmilkproduction(invariousmilkproducts)isexpor
ted,mainlytocountriesinEastandSEAsia.Duringthelast20yearsthedairyingareainAustraliadeclined
slightlytoabout2.2Mha,yetmilkproductionrosefrom6262MLin1990toapeakof11271MLin2001/02;
ithassincedeclinedto9101MLin2011[20,21].Thesetrendsinmilkproductionpartlyreflectedthesizeofthe
dairyherd,whichrosefromabout1.65miliondairycowsin1990toalmost2.2milionatthepeak,folowed
byadeclineto1.6milionin2011.However,theprimedriveroftheincreasedproductivitywas50%higher
productivitypercow(from3781litres/cowin1990to5699litres/cowin2011).Thisinturnresultedfroma
rangeoffactors,includingbetternutrition.Thiswaspartlyduetobetterpastures,whichprovideabout60%
oftheAustraliandairyfeedbase.Theapplicationofnitrogenfertilisertodairypasturesroughlytrebledduring
the20yearperiod(StainesandWindsor,quotedbyEckard2010)[22],andthispossiblyunderpinnedasimilar
treblingofonfarmsilageproductionandconsumption.However,duringthesameperiodtheuseofgrainsand
concentratesalsodoubled;by2011theindustrywasusingabout2.5Mtofgrain[23].Giventhecomplexinter
actionsbetweenfeedsourcesitisdifficulttoquantifythecontributionofpastureagronomytotheincreased
milkproduction,butitcanbeassumedtobehigh.Amorethoroughanalysisisneeded.
犅犲犲犳犪狀犱狏犲犪犾.Productionofbeefandvealincreasedbyabout40%duringthelast20years.Agooddeal
oftheextraproduction(perhapsasmuchas80%)camefromQueensland.E.F.Henzel (personalcommuni
cation)hasconcludedthatintheperiodfromtheearlymid1980stoabout2007,annualcarcassweightproduc
tioninQueenslandincreasedbyabout515kt.Duringthesameperiod,about5Mhaoflandwassowntopas
tures(1.35Mhaoflegumebasedpasturesand3.6Mhaofgrassonlypastures)usingplantvarietiesandassoci
atedtechnologiesmostlyderivedfromtheplantintroduction,evaluationandpasturemanagementresearchof
agronomists.Thesenewlysownpasturescontributedabout87ktoftheincreasedQueenslandcarcassproduc
tion,or60.9ktofmeat,sufficienttoprovide25-50g/(person·day)for3.3-6.7milionpeople.Smalin
creasesinbeefcattleproductivityalsooccurredintheNorthernTerritoryandtheKimberleys,andthelivecat
tletradefromnorthernAustralia(averagingabout700000head/yearfrom1996-2010)contributedtofoodse
curityinSEAsia.InsouthernAustralia,itislesseasytodiscernamajorcontributionarisingfrompastureag
ronomy.
犕狌狋狋狅狀犪狀犱犾犪犿犫.Productionofmuttonfelduringthelast20years.However,drivenbyexports,pro
ductionofprimelambrosebyabout30%-40%.Totalsheepmeatproductionthereforechangedverylittle.
Thelivesheeptradedeclinedduringtheperiod.Intermsofthefoodsecurityindicator,pastureagronomy
8 ACTAPRATACULTURAESINICA(2013) Vol.22,No.4
thereforecontributedlittleoveral,butitveryprobablycontributedtothesustainabilityofthesheepmeatin
dustriesandtotheprofitofindividualproducers.
犛狌犿犿犪狉狔
Usingthemostconservativeoftheseestimates,theanalysissuggeststhatduringthelast20yearsAustral
ianagronomyunderpinnedtheproductionofenoughadditionalAustraliancerealgrains,pulses,oilseeds,meat
andmilkproductstofeed6-10milionpeopleareasonablybalanceddiet.Theassumptionsarebrave,and
whethersuchnumbersofpeoplewereactualyfedisunknown.
犆狅狀狋狉犻犫狌狋犻狅狀狅犳犃狌狊狋狉犪犾犻犪狀犪犵狉狅狀狅犿狔狋狅犳狅狅犱狆狉狅犱狌犮狋犻狅狀犻狀狅狋犺犲狉犮狅狌狀狋狉犻犲狊
犚犪狋犻狅狀犪犾犲
Australianagronomycontributestofoodproductioninothercountriesdirectlythroughbilateralresearch
activitiesandindirectlythroughAustralia’sinvolvementwiththemultilateralsystemofInternationalAgricul
turalResearchCentres.Therearealsoindirectcontributionsthroughthebuildingofresearchcapacityindevel
opingcountriesandthroughthecontributionofAustralianstotheglobalpoolofknowledge.Althoughtheim
pactoftrainingishardtoquantify,itisprobablyhighlyeffective,asattestedbythehandfulofquantification
attempts[24].
Australia’sbilateralcontributionisprincipalymanagedbyACIAR,althoughAusAIDalsosupportsasig
nificantAustraliancontribution,particularlythroughtraining.
ACIARsupportsresearchactivitiesinmanyfieldsofagriculturalscience.Sinceitsestablishmentin1982,
ACIARhassupportedmorethan200projectsthathavehadasignificantagronomiccomponent.Independent
benefit/costanalysesofasampleofthese(perhapsbiasedtowardsthosethathavemostobviouslymadea
difference)aresummarisedinTable2.Thedataindicatethattheseprojectsshoulddeliverbenefitsofmore
than$2bilionovera30yeartimeframe.Suchfinancialbenefitsshoulddeliverfoodsecuritybenefits,butitis
notalwayspossibletoestimatethesefromtheavailabledata.Forthepresentpaper,Ihaveexaminedafew
projectstoestimatetheircontributionsintermsofadditionalfoodgenerated(orlikelytobegenerated).
犐犿狆狉狅狏犲犿犲狀狋狅犳狊犲犿犻犪狉犻犱犳犪狉犿犻狀犵狊狔狊狋犲犿狊犻狀犓犲狀狔犪
From1983-93,anAustralianCSIROteamledbyBobMcCown,RogerJonesandJeffSimpsonundertook
researchinKenyaonsmalfarmcropproduction[26].Theresearchdemonstrated,inparticular,theessentiality
ofapplyingNfertiliserifworthwhilecropyieldsweretobeobtained.ThenatureoftheNresponsecurvesob
tainedbyBrianKeatingsuggestedthatsmaldosesofN(iemuchlessthantheeconomicalyoptimumandpar
ticularlythebiologicalyoptimumlevels)appliedclosetoyoungmaizeplantswouldprovidealowrisk,highre
turnoptionforsmalfarmerswhowerehighlyriskaverse.Thetechniquelaterbecameknownasmicrodosing,
usingapplicationratesequivalenttoabout17kgN (50kgammoniumnitrate)/ha,andhasbeenfurtherre
searchedandadvocatedbyICRISATsincethattime.In2003/04,withsupportfromDFID(theUKDepart
mentforInternationalDevelopment)andECHO(theEuropeanCommissionHumanitarianAidOffice),micro
dosingwasdeliveredto160000farmersinZimbabwe,byprovidingeachfarmerwith25kgofammoniumni
trateatnocost[35].Resultsfrommorethan1000trialsindicatedthatyieldincreasesof30%-50% (typicaly
around500kg/ha)weretobeobtained.However,provisionoffreefertiliserisnonsustainable.Since2006,
theOneAcreFund(aUSbasedNGO)hasbeenselingapackageoftechnologiesandsupportactivities(inclu
dingmicrodosing)thatiscurrentlybeingdeliveredto145000smalfarmersinKenya,RwandaandBurundi
andthatwilbedeliveredto225000farmersin2013(TonyKalm,personalcommunication).Excessfarmpro
9第22卷第4期 草业学报2013年
duce(includingmaize)isbeingsold,andfarmprofitsarebeingdoubled.Usingsimpleassumptionsitseems
likelythatthecurrentlevelofscaleupisproducinganadditionalmaizeharvestof20-30kt/year-sufficientto
feed100000-500000peopleatconsumptionratesof150-500g/day.Adoptionseemslikelytoincrease
rapidly.
犜犪犫犾犲2 犅犲狀犲犳犻狋/犮狅狊狋犪狀犪犾狔狊犲狊狅犳犃犆犐犃犚狆狉狅犼犲犮狋狊犻狀狑犺犻犮犺犃狌狊狋狉犪犾犻犪狀犪犵狉狅狀狅犿犻狊狋狊狑犲狉犲犻狀狏狅犾狏犲犱,犪狀犱犻狀狑犺犻犮犺
犪狊犻犵狀犻犳犻犮犪狀狋犮狅犿狆狅狀犲狀狋狅犳狋犺犲狉犲狊犲犪狉犮犺狑犪狊犪犵狉狅狀狅犿犻犮(犛狅狌狉犮犲狊:犃犆犐犃犚犐犿狆犪犮狋犃狊狊犲狊狊犿犲狀狋
犛犲狉犻犲狊,犈犮狅狀狅犿犻犮犃狊狊犲狊狊犿犲狀狋犛犲狉犻犲狊犪狀犱犿犻狊犮犲犾犪狀犲狅狌狊狆犪狆犲狉狊)
Natureoftheresearch Countriesthat
benefited
Estimatedpresentvalue
ofbenefits($m)1
Benefit/cost
ratio
Reference
Diagnosisofnutritionaldisordersofgrainsorghum India 9.22 8.4 [25]
Improvementofsemiaridtropicalfarmingsystems Kenya 25.5 3.5 [26]
Phosphorusandsulphurnutritionoftropicalcrops Australia 2.4 3.4 [27]
Pigeonpeaimprovement India 48.1 6.5 [28]
Controlof犘犺犪犾犪狉犻狊犿犻狀狅狉intheIndianricewheatbelt India 238 183 [29]
WaterandnitrogenmanagementinwheatmaizeproductionontheNorthChinaplain China 216.22 77 [30]
Conservationtilagefordrylandcropping China,Australia 578.6 36.3 [31]
Watermanagementinpublicirrigationschemes Vietnam 14.7 9.8 [32]
Capacitybuildingtoovercomeproductionconstraintstodrylandsorghum India,Australia 03 - [33]
Foragelegumedevelopment Indonesia 13082 28 [34]
Total 2440.7
1:Dolarsareforvariousyears;egforthefirststudylisted,benefitsareexpressedin1990Australiandolars;forthelaststudy,benefitsareex
pressedin2011Australiandolars.5%discountingwasusedinmostexamples.Wheremorethanoneb/canalysishasbeenundertaken,theloweres
timateshavebeenused.
2:NetPresentValue.
3:Thisprojectwasamixtureofplantimprovementandmodeling.Theprojectgeneratedprospectivebenefitsof$201.5m (2007dolars),but
thesewerealfortheplantimprovementcomponent.Theagronomiccomponent(traininginAPSIMmodeling)subsequentlyledtosignificantbutas
yetunquantifiedbenefitsinAfrica.
Akeyquestionraisedbythisprojectistheattributionofbenefits.DoweattributethebenefitstoAustral
ianagronomy,toICRISAT,totheOneAcreFundortosomecombinationoftheseandotherorganisations?
Andakeymessageisthatwithoutasustainableadoptionpathway,theimpactofresearchislikelytobelow
anddelayed.
犘犻犵犲狅狀狆犲犪犻犿狆狉狅狏犲犿犲狀狋犪狀犱犿犪狀犪犵犲犿犲狀狋犻狀犐狀犱犻犪
From1982-88DonByth(UniversityofQueensland)ledtwoprojectsthatspeededupthedevelopment
andadoptionofshortdurationpigeonpeasinIndia.ICRISATwasakeypartner.AccordingtoBobLawn(per
sonalcommunication),thekeybreakthroughwasEoinWalis’agronomicworkwhichshowedthatbyadjus
tingagronomytoaccommodatephotoperiodiceffects,highyieldscouldbeobtainedfromshortdurationcrops.
ItisquiteclearthattheworkcontributedtoasignificantincreaseintheareasowntopigeonpeasinIndia(from
about2.9Mhain1981-83to4.0Mhain1994-96)andfavourablyinfluencedthedirectionofICRISAT’spi
geonpeabreedingprogram[28].However,problemsofquantifyingtheproductionincreaseandassigningcredit
forthismakeitdifficulttoassessthecontributiontofoodsecuritymadebytheAustralians.
01 ACTAPRATACULTURAESINICA(2013) Vol.22,No.4
犆狅狀狊犲狉狏犪狋犻狅狀狋犻犾犾犪犵犲狉犲狊犲犪狉犮犺狅狀狋犺犲犔狅犲狊狊犘犾犪狋犲犪狌狅犳犆犺犻狀犪
From1993-2003,AustralianresearchersledbyJeffTulberg(UniversityofQueensland)colaborated
withChinesecounterpartsonresearchonminimumtilageforwheatandmaizeontheLoessPlateauinnorthern
China[31].Theresearchrequiredinparticularthedevelopmentormodificationofnewplantingequipment,and
itswidescaleadoptionrequiredtheproductionofthousandsofsmalplanters(therewere2notilseedermanu
facturersinnorthChinain2001,and20by2004)tosuitthesmaltractorsandsmalfarmsizescharacteristic
ofChineseagriculture.Averagewheatyieldsincreasedby17.7%,andaveragemaizeyieldsby12.3%.There
werealsosignificantproductioncostreductions,buttheseareignoredhere.Theestimatedceilingadoptionlev
elacross13northwesternProvinceswas17.5%,andatthetimeoftheimpactassessmenttherewere67.9Mt
ofwheatand65.2Mtofmaizeproducedperyearinthisregion.Projectedincreasedgrainproductionarising
fromtheresearchwastherefore2.1Mtofwheatperyearatceilingadoption(sufficienttofeed11-38milion
peopleat150-500g/capita·day)and1.4Mtofmaizeperyearsufficienttoproduceabout77ktofbeefmeat,
enoughtosupply4-8milionpeopleatdailyratesof25-50g/capita(perhapstwicethismanyifitweretobe
convertedtochickenmeat).Ofcourse,therearemanycaveatsintheseextrapolations;inparticular,there
search(althougheffectivelythefirstofitskindinChina)wouldhavebeenundertakeneventualybyothers,
andtheimpactswereestimatedexante;buttheresearchwasundertakenbytheAustralian/Chineseteam,and
wasassumedbytheindependentassessortohavebroughtforwardadoptionby3years;andthetechnologyis
saidtohavebeenadoptedon0.42Mhaby2005,andonmorethan3Mhaby2009[36],suggestingthattheceil
ingadoptiontargetwasbeingapproached.
犣犲狉狅狋犻犾犾犪犵犲犪狀犱狑犲犲犱犮狅狀狋狉狅犾犻狀狋犺犲犐狀犱犻犪狀狉犻犮犲狑犺犲犪狋犫犲犾狋
From1997-2000,andagainsince2006,ACIARhassupportedresearchinIndialedbyGurjeetGil(Uni
versityofAdelaide).Thefirstprojectfocussedparticularlyonthecontroloftheannualgrass犘犺犪犾犪狉犻狊犿犻狀狅狉
inwheatcrops,usingzerotilageasonepartofaweedcontrolpackagethatincludednewherbicides.Thesec
ondprojectisdevelopingdirectdrilingtechnologyforricecrops.Theimpactofthefirstprojecthasbeenas
sessedbyVincentandQuirke[29].Theprojectprovidedsustainableandprofitableweedcontrolpracticesthatal
soprovidedayieldadvantageof150kg/habyalowingthecroptobeplantedamonthearlier.Thesepractices
havealreadybeenadoptedonmorethan1MhainHaryana.Thisadditionalwheatproduction(about150kt/
year)wouldprovidefoodfor0.8-2.7milionpeopleatconsumptionratesof150-500g/day-adirectfood
securitybenefit.Ofcourse,themainindirectbenefitintermsoffoodsecurityistheprotectionofpreviously
existingwheatyields.
Thesecondprojecthasshownthattheyieldpenaltyassociatedwithdirectdriledricecanbeeliminatedby
sowingriceatthesamecalendardateonwhichriceisusualysowninnurseriesforsubsequenttransplanting.
Bettermachineryhasalsobeendeveloped,alowingseedingratestobereducedsignificantly.Itistooearlyto
predictthelikelydirectfoodsecuritybenefits,buttheindirectbenefitsinthereducedcostsofenergyandla
bourinputsarelikelytobeverylarge.Inboththeseprojects,aswithzerotilageinChina,thedevelopment
andsuccessofalocalequipmentmanufacturingindustryhasbeen(andwilbe)crucialtoadoption.
犉狅狉犪犵犲狊犺狉狌犫犾犲犵狌犿犲狊犻狀犛犈犃狊犻犪
Since1984ACIARhasinvestedinabout50projectsinvolvingtropicalforages.Thoseconcernedwith
犛狋狔犾狅狊犪狀狋犺犲狊(globalythepreeminenttropicalforagegenus)haveprobablydeliveredsignificantbenefits,but
weremostlyconcernedwithplantimprovementandplantprotection(ienotagronomy)andtheirpayoffhasnot
11第22卷第4期 草业学报2013年
yetbeenquantified.AboutadozenprojectshavebeenmainlyfocussedonshrublegumessuchasleucaenainSE
Asia.Aloftheshrublegumeprojectshadastrongagronomiccomponentbutmanyhavealsoinvolvedsome
plantimprovementandotherresearch.ThecurrentprojectisledbyMaxShelton(UniversityofQueensland),
butmanyAustralians(includingShelton)haveledorbeeninvolvedinpreviousprojects.Theresearchhas
shownconsistentlythatverylargegainsinlivestock(cattle)productioncouldbeobtained,andMartin[34]has
estimatedthattheNetPresentBenefitsoftheresearchexceed$1bilion(Table2).However,mostofthese
benefitsarestilprospectiveandhavebeenexcludedfromthispaper.
犗狋犺犲狉犫犻犾犪狋犲狉犪犾狆狉狅犼犲犮狋狊犻狀狏狅犾狏犻狀犵犃狌狊狋狉犪犾犻犪狀犪犵狉狅狀狅犿犻狊狋狊
Priorto5yearsofcivilwar(1970-75),Cambodiawasariceexportingnation.By1975,riceplantings
hadbeenreducedby77%andriceproductionby84%comparedwith1970levels[37].By1979,underthemur
derousPolPotregimethatfolowedthewar,aquarterofthepopulation(particularlybettereducatedpeople)
hadperishedandCambodiahadanannualricedeficitof0.2-0.5Mt.TheCambodia/IRRI/AustraliaProject
(CIAP)wasfundedbyAusAIDfrom1987-2001.LedbyHarryNesbitt,itincludedagronomy,plantim
provementandcapacitybuilding.By1995Cambodiawasagainselfsufficient;by2002itwasagainanexport
er;andsince2007ithasexportedabout1.5Mt/year(thepreciseamountisdifficulttoestimate).Thereisno
doubtthatthisprojectcontributedtothefoodsecurityofthe15milionpeopleofCambodiaduringthelast20
years,andthroughriceexportsprobablysupportsanother8-27milionatconsumptionratesof150-500g/
(person·day).PerhapshalfthiscontributionmightbeattributedtoAustralianagronomistssay7.5milion
Cambodiansand4-13milionothers.
TheLao/IRRIProject(1990-2006)wasfundedbytheSwissaidprogram,butwasledfrom1990-2001
byJohnSchiler,anAustralianagronomistemployedatIRRI[38].Theprojectledtoanincreaseinriceproduc
tioninLaosfromabout1.5Mtin1990to2.0Mtin1999and2.5Mtin2004-aproductiongainofabout0.7
MtattheconclusionofSchiler’sleadership.MostoftheincreasewasduetoadoptionofimprovedIRRIvarie
ties,butcapacitybuildingwasanothermajorfactor.Ifoneattributed(say)10%oftheyieldincreasetoagron
omyandanother10%tocapacitybuilding,andonethirdofthistoSchiler’sleadershipandAustraliantrain
ing,onemightsaythat0.25-0.80milionpeoplemayhavebeensupportedby“Australianagronomy”;butat
thislevelofinexactitudetheexerciseisalmostfutile.
犈狓狋狉犪狆狅犾犪狋犻狅狀
Usingthemostconservativeoftheseestimates,thishandfulofbilateralprojectsmayhaveunderpinnedthe
productionofenoughadditionalgraintosupportabout23milionpeoplethroughtheeffortsofAustralianag
ronomyand/oragronomists.Theyarelikelytobeamongthemostbeneficialofthecompletesetofagronomic
projectsfundedbyACIARorAusAID,butitisalsounlikelythattheotherprojectswouldhavedeliveredno
foodsecuritybenefitsatal.However,letusconservativelyassumethattheAustralianagronomists’contribu
tiontoworldfoodsecuritythroughthebilateralprograminthelast20yearsisintheorderof23milionpeo
ple.ThisestimatedependsveryheavilyontheextenttowhichconservationtilagehasbeenadoptedinChina,
andontheattributionofimpactsfromtheCIAPProjectinCambodia.
犕狌犾狋犻犾犪狋犲狉犪犾狆狉狅犵狉犪犿狊:狋犺犲犐狀狋犲狉狀犪狋犻狅狀犪犾犃犵狉犻犮狌犾狋狌狉犪犾犚犲狊犲犪狉犮犺犆犲狀狋狉犲狊
TheCGIARsystemofInternationalAgriculturalResearchCentres(IARCs)hasfoodsecurityasonlyone
ofits4goals(theothersarereducedpoverty,improvednutritionandhealth,andsustainablemanagementof
21 ACTAPRATACULTURAESINICA(2013) Vol.22,No.4
naturalresources).Thistensionamongdesiredoutcomesisreflectedinseeminglyendlesschangeinitsgeo
graphicalanddisciplinaryfocusandinstructuralorganisation.Themostrecentreorganisationhasledtothees
tablishmentof15crossIARCresearchprograms.Agriculturalproductivity,however,isattheheartofmuch
ofitsresearch.
ThemostrecentassessmentoftheimpactoftheCGIARCentres[39]indicatesthattheirplantbreedinghas
madeadramaticcontributiontoworldfoodsecuritybyliftingcropproductivity;itcontributedalmost30%of
theglobalyieldincreaseindevelopingcountriesoftenfieldcrops,includingwheatwhereanimpressive50%-
60%isclaimed.Agronomyissqueezedintonaturalresourcesmanagement(NRM),andtheimpactofthe
IARCsinthisfieldhasbeenmuchlessdramatic,partlybecauseNRMresearchdealswithsystemsanditsim
pactsaremuchmorecountryorregionspecific(ratherthanglobal).Theauthorsarereduced(asIhavebeen)
tousingexamples,andtheysingleoutzerotilageasanexampleofsignificantimpact.NumerousAustralian
agronomistshavebeeninvolvedintheresearchoftheIARCS-asCGIARemployees,asresearchpartnersin
bilateralprojectssuchasthosedescribedabove,orinACIAR’s“SpecialPurposeGrants”whichlinkAustralian
researchersdirectlytotheIARCs.Thereseemstohavebeenlimitedbenefit/costanalysisofthesegrants.A
notableAustraliancontributiontotropicalpasturedevelopmentwasmadebyBela(Bert)Grof,whowasasso
ciatedwiththedevelopmentofsignalgrass(犅狉犪犮犺犻犪狉犻犪犱犲犮狌犿犫犲狀狊cv.Basilisk),firstinAustraliaandthen
(withCIAT)inSouthAmericawhereitisnowsownontensofmilionsofhectares.Theadoptionandimpacts
extendedwelintothe20yearreviewperiod.
犜狉犪犻狀犻狀犵犪狀犱犾犲犪犱犲狉狊犺犻狆
Australiahasinvestedheavilyintrainingagriculturalscientistsfromdevelopingcountriesinawiderange
offields,includingagronomy.Theimpactoftrainingishardtoquantify,andtherearefewdataonwhichto
baseanassessmentofitscontributiontoworldfoodsecurity.Recently,anewframeworkforassessingtheim
pactoftraininghasbeendevelopedforACIARandtheCrawfordFund[24].Whileitswidespreadapplicationlies
inthefuture,two“rulesofthumb”thatemergedfromtheliteraturereviewareparticularlyhelpful:(a)im
provementsinhumancapitalexplainabout30%oftheincreaseintotalfactorproductivity;and(b)abouthalf
oftheincreasedagriculturalproductivitycanbeattributedtointerstateorinternationalR&Dspilovereffects.
Australianagronomistshavecontributedtofoodsecuritythroughleadershippositionsinothercountries
andinternationalorganisations.Dozensofnamescouldbementioned.ByfocussingandmanagingR&D,they
havemadecontributionstofoodsecuritythatcannotbequantifiedbutaresurelysignificant.
犘狌犾犻狀犵犻狋狋狅犵犲狋犺犲狉
BasedonthisanalysistheworkofAustralianagronomistsduringthelast20yearsmayhaveunderpinned
theproductionofenoughadditionalgrainandlivestockproductstofeed30milionpeople.Thisassumesthat
thefoodiseaten,andisnotlostpostharvestorusedforalternativepurposes.Aboutonethirdofthecontribu
tionhasbeenmadeinAustraliaandtwothirdsoverseas(principalyinAsia).Limitedconfidencecanbeplaced
inthedatafortheoverseascontribution.ThedataforthecontributioninAustraliaaremorerobustbutareob
scuredbythemilenniumdrought.Invirtualyeverycase,attributionissuesarechalenging.
BothinAustraliaandoverseas,zerotilagehasbeenamajorcomponentofthesuccessofAustralianagron
omy.WhilethistechnologywasnotconceivedorfirstinventedinAustralia,Australiahasbecomeaglobal
31第22卷第4期 草业学报2013年
leaderinitsadaptationandapplication,andhassuccessfulytransferredittodevelopingcountriesinAsia.
犠犺犪狋犾犻犲狊犪犺犲犪犱?
Thefutureisalwayshardtopredict,butinthiscasealmostimpossible.Thefalbackordefaultansweris:
“Moreofthesame”.Thereisprobablyenoughinertiainthesystem(bothintermsofprojectsnowunderway
andtechnologyawaitingfurtherexploitation)tosuggestthatthecurrentcontributionwilbemaintainedfora
decadeorso.
However,beyondthistimeframethecontributionwilbeaffectedbydecisionsofmanykinds,bothin
Australiaandoverseas,thatareoutsidethecontrolofagronomistsandthatwilaffectbothinputsandoutputs.
Profit(notfoodsecurity)istheprimarydriverofAustralianagriculture,andourfuturedirectionwilbeinflu
encedbythesamethreepressuresthathavealwaysbeeninplay:ourabilitytocapturemarketsanddelivera
product;ourabilitytoaccessandpayfornewtechnology;andourabilitytoaccommodatetheenvironmental
expectationsofother,mainlycitydwelingAustralians.WilAustralianfarmerscontinuetoproducecropsand
livestockinaboutthecurrentmixture,orwilcost/pricepressureschangethemixtureawayfromfoodprodu
cingcropsandlivestocktowardscommoditiesthathavelittleimpactonfoodsecurity(wool,cotton,grapes,
biofuelcrops)?WilwehaveenoughAustralianagronomiststomaintainourshareoftheglobalresearchagenda
andtheglobalagronomypublications?Thenumberofscientistsworkingonsowntropicalpastureshasnow
falenfromapeakofabout125duringthe1970stothepreWorldWarIIlevelofaboutadozen[40];adecline
hasalsooccurredforproductionfocussedcropscientistsintheAustraliantropics[41].Rebuildingtheagronomic
baseinthetropics(ifitistooccur)wilbeagenerationalchalenge.
Internationaly,ourcontributionwilbeaffectedverysignificantlybywherewework.Wealreadyknow
thatabout40%oftheworld’sfoodisproducedonabout250Mhaofirrigatedland,andCassman[42]hassug
gestedthatfoodsecuritywildependonfurtherintensificationofcropproductioninthe4majorcroppingsys
temsthatalreadyunderpinworldfoodsupply:irrigatedlowlandricesystemsinAsia;irrigatedrice/wheatsys
temsinnorthIndia,Pakistan,NepalandsouthernChina;temperatenonirrigatedmaizebasedsystemsonthe
NorthAmericanplains;andtemperatenonirrigatedsystemsinnorthwestandcentralEurope.Thereisacon
traryviewthatthereismoreadvancetobemadeperunitofresearchinvestmentindrylandagriculture,butit
seemstomethatonlyclimatechangewilalterthefundamentalpatternofagriculturalyendowedregions.
However,theAustralianaidprogramisinfluencedbyotherissues,notablypovertyreduction,andouraid
programislikelytoincreasinglytargetthelessendowedregionsofAfrica,westAsiaandtheMiddleEast.
Therearealreadysignsthatthisishappening(egtheestablishmentwithinACIARoftheAustralianInterna
tionalFoodSecurityCentrewithitsstrongAfricanfocus,andtheinvolvementofCSIRO’sSustainableAgri
cultureFlagshipinanumberofpartnershipsandaliancesinAfrica).Whilethiswilplaytoouragronomic
strengthsindrylandcropping,itmayreducetheeffectivenessofourinvestmentintermsofpeoplefedperagro
nomicaiddolarspent.
WilwebesmartenoughtodevelopbetterbilateralresearchcolaborationarrangementswithChina,India
andotherheavilypopulatedregionsasthey“graduate”fromtheaidprogram?Withouttheaiddolar,wilpri
vateinvestmentandourtrivialinternationalscientificcooperationfundingbeadequatetomeetthepublicfood
securityinterest?WilourStatebasedemployingorganisationsalowtheirstafftoworkoninternationalfood
securityissues?
Newparadigmswilemerge,drivenbynecessity,scientificdiscoveryandprofit.Theoperatingenviron
41 ACTAPRATACULTURAESINICA(2013) Vol.22,No.4
mentforagronomistsischangingbeforeoureyes:disinvestmentin“public”agriculturalscience,changingfood
preferences,geneticalymodifiedplants,adaptationtoclimatechange,possiblebreakthroughsinphotosynthe
sis,reducedenergyinputsandopportunitiesforbiofuels,pressurefromenvironmentalistsetc.Whathasnot
changedisthekeyimperative:peoplemusteattosurvive,andmorethan80%oftheworld’sfoodisderived
directlyfromplants[4].Aslongasthatsituationcontinues,agronomistswilbeneeded.
犃犮犽狀狅狑犾犲犱犵犲犿犲狀狋狊: IamgratefultoGraemeBlair,TonyFischer,TimHealy,RogerJones,TonyKalm,Bob
Lawn,AlecLazenbyandTedWolfeforcommentsandadvice;however,anyerrorsandmisinterpretationsare
entirelymyown.
犚犲犳犲狉犲狀犮犲狊:
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澳大利亚农学在近20年对世界食物安全的贡献及未来的发展
ClementsRJ
(29HolmesCrescent,CampbelACT2612,Australia)
摘要:澳大利亚农学主要包括由本土的和/或受雇于澳大利亚的农学家针对大田作物和牧草生产中有关土地、水、土壤和植物管理
而进行的研究和推广,主要通过促进生产力的提高(包括单位面积,或单位投入,或每头牲畜的产量增加),为保障世界食物安全作
出了贡献。在过去的20年里,澳大利亚农学为大田作物和牲畜生产的提高给予了强有力的支撑,因而对保障世界食物安全助益极
大。理论上,这些作物和牲畜生产每年可为大约3千万人提供谷物和充足的肉、食用油和奶制品,提高了膳食质量,增加了风味。
但是,这种情形发生的前提是,所有的食物确实都被食用了,而不是在收获后损失了或被用于了其他目的。该人口数(3千万)的计
算则包含了大量假设,因此带有极大的不确定性。就生产力的提高而言,约1/3在澳大利亚,余下的在发展中国家,主要在亚洲。
由澳大利亚国际农业研究中心和/或澳大利亚国际开发署资助的双边项目的执行已经产生了明显的国际性效益,参加项目的科学
家来自澳大利亚和某个发展中国家,并往往与某个国际农业研究中心有联系。澳大利亚农学家还通过其他途径为保障世界食物安
全作出了贡献,如举办培训班,或者领导其他国家和国际组织的相关研究和推广,但这类贡献是无法用数字来衡量的。展望未来,
技术创新仍将被不断地采用,大量项目也正在执行中,因此,至少10年内,澳大利亚农学家仍将作出同等水平的贡献,而之后,他们
的贡献将不可预测。
关键词:澳大利亚;农学;食物安全
71第22卷第4期 草业学报2013年