全 文 ：民族植物学与生物多样性的可持续利用
裴盛基
(中国科学院昆明植物研究所, 云南 昆明摇 650201)
摘要: 民族植物学是一门研究人与植物相互关系的学科, 用于了解世界各地人与植物的相互关系, 对于寻
找保护植物的最好方法至关重要, 这一科学领域在许多国家被应用于有关植物的传统知识调查记载, 大量
地方性植物区系中的有用植物编目已经完成。 在过去一百年中, 从民族植物学调查获得的有关植物的地方
性知识, 对于药物和农业发展, 以及植物新产品开发作出了巨大贡献。 自从 20 世纪 60 年代以来, 科学界
更为关注全球环境变化的重要性, 现代环境变化的速度是人类历史上从来没有过的。 自然资源正以惊人的
速度消失, 威胁到大量物种以至最终灭绝。 面对这一危机, 民族植物学研究面临的紧迫任务, 不仅是作为
一种科学工具应对环境的退化, 而且由于它的巨大潜力, 能为植物资源可持续利用和农村扶贫作出重要贡
献。 民族植物学研究对现代发展的贡献是多方面的, 其中包括: 构建传统植物学信息库为保护和发展服
务; 管理景观系统为保护工作提供各种形式的帮助; 加强社区参与农村发展的活力。 本文围绕民族植物学
在生物多样性保护和现代农村发展中的作用, 生物多样性保护和可持续利用面临的挑战, 以及生物与文化
途径在利用和保护生物多样性中的作用等进行了探讨。
关键词: 民族植物学; 生物多样性; 传统知识; 植物资源; 可持续利用与保护
中图分类号: Q 948. 12摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 文献标识码: A摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 文章编号: 2095-0845(2013)04-401-06
Ethnobotany and the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity
PEI Sheng鄄Ji
(Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China)
Abstract: Ethnobotany, as a scientific discipline, deals with human鄄plant relationships, and is vitally important to
plant conservation. Ethnobotany is used in many countries throughout the world for documenting indigenous knowl鄄
edge of plants. Consequently, many inventories of useful plants in local floras have been compiled. Over the last
hundred years, local knowledge about plants, gained through ethnobotanical studies, has contributed greatly to the
development of medicine and agriculture, and to the discovery of numerous new plant鄄based products. Since the
1960s, the scientific community has become increasingly aware of the magnitude of global environmental change,
now occurring at a speed never before encountered in human history. Natural resources are being depleted at an a鄄
larming rate and there are threats of imminent extinction to many species. Faced with this crisis, ethnobotanical re鄄
search assumes a new urgency, not only as a tool for trying to deal with environmental degradation, but also for its
potential usefulness in contributing to sustainable use of plant resources and poverty reduction among rural communi鄄
ties. Ethnobotanical research can contribute to modern development in many ways, including: creating information /
data鄄banks of traditional knowledge about plants for use in conservation and future development; managing the land鄄
scape so as to best deliver conservation benefits of all types; enhancing rural community engagement in rural devel鄄
opment. This paper discusses ethnobotany and its role in modern development and biodiversity conservation, the
challenges that biodiversity and sustainable use face, and the biocultural approach of biodiversity use and con鄄
servation.
Key words: Ethnobotany; Biodiversity; Traditional knowledge; Plant resources; Sustainable use and conservation
植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报摇 2013, 35 (4): 401 ~ 406
Plant Diversity and Resources摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 摇 DOI: 10. 7677 / ynzwyj201313002
Received date: 2013-01-08, Accepted date: 2013-01-14
作者简介: 裴盛基 (1938-) 男, 研究员, 主要从事民族植物学与生物多样性研究。 E鄄mail: peishengji@ mail. kib. ac. cn
1 摇 Introduction to Ethnobotany and its
role in modern development
The term ‘ethnobotany爷 was first used in a scien鄄
tific publication by an American botanist, John Harsh鄄
berger in 1896 (Harshberger, 1896). The context
was research he was undertaking into the knowledge
and uses of plants by native Americans in the USA
(Ford, 1978; Cotton, 1996). From this start, the
scope of the subject has expanded to now cover all as鄄
pects of human relationship with plants. Many sectors
are covered, including how people interact with plants
in a wide range of production systems (such as farm鄄
ing, forestry and animal husbandry), the use of plants
for various product categories ( such as food, fiber,
medicine and energy) and the roles of plants in reli鄄
gious and spiritual cultures. Furthermore understand鄄
ing the human鄄people relationship around the world
is vital to developing best way to conserve plants.
Local knowledge of the uses of plants was a
great help to Western countries in the age of Europe鄄
an empires as they developed plantation economies
in the tropics. Asia, Latin America and Africa all
contributed greatly, for example as the sources of tea
and teak in Asia, Latin America of cocoa and rub鄄
ber, and Africa of coffee and oil palm. Genetic re鄄
sources, discovered and maintained by indigenous
societies, have formed the basis of development of
many new economic crops. For example, some of
the thousands of local landraces of rice, evolved by
farmers in Asia over the years, have contributed fun鄄
damentally to the development of modern varieties of
rice. Knowledge held by local societies has proved a
foundation for the development of a very wide range
of industrial plant鄄based products, for example
foods, beverages, medicines, cosmetics and others
(Xue et al., 2009). According to statistics supplied
by Greenpeace, a quarter of the world爷s annual pro鄄
duction of pharmaceutical products (valued at US＄
130 billion) is based on contributions from tropical
plants ( Prance, 1995; Hamilton and Hamilton,
2006; Pei, 2001).
Over the last two decades, ethnobotany has ten鄄
ded to become more analytical, quantitative, cross鄄
disciplinary and multi鄄institutional. Ethnobotanists
are now much more engaged with sustainable devel鄄
opment, conservation, cultural affirmation and the
intellectual property rights of local and indigenous
people. Ethnobotanical studies have contributed to
new ecological insights into the origins and dynamics
of tropical ecosystems (Prance, 1995). Today, other
countries, apart from Western, are themselves de鄄
veloping new drugs based on ethnobotanical research
carried out by their own scientists (Pei, 2001; Jain,
2010). The work of the ‘People and Plants Initia鄄
tive爷, a programme of UNESCO, WWF and the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (1992-2004) and ac鄄
tive in the Himalayan region and east Africa as well
as other parts of the world, has strongly supported
the contention that community participation and tra鄄
ditional knowledge are very important ingredients in
efforts to achieve conservation of biodiversity and
sustainable use of natural resources (Hamilton and
Hamilton, 2006; Pei, 2010).
In the past, ethnobotany has sometimes been
considered a ‘ soft 爷 science, but recent develop鄄
ments in the subject are tending to change this per鄄
ception. Apart from the intrinsic interest of its find鄄
ings, ethnobotany is emerging as a subject of great
practical value. Its application can lead to a
strengthening of cultural diversity and conservation,
greater sustainability in the exploitation of plant re鄄
sources and the development of new plant products.
The practical value of ethnobotany in relation to
biodiversity can be highlighted in three areas:
1 ) Creating Information / Data鄄bank on local
knowledge of plants to serve as resources for biodi鄄
versity conservation and economic development
The term ‘ethnobotanical knowledge爷 refers to
knowledge generated and developed by people over
the course of time. One of the main foci of ethnobo鄄
tanical studies has been recording the knowledge of
indigenous people about their plants. Such peoples
are generally very knowledgeable about the plants in
their neighborhoods, including about their identifica鄄
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tion, classification and ecology. They know much
about their properties, for example whether useful as
sources of food, medicines and poisons. Plants have
symbolic associations and are valued for cultural (in鄄
cluding spiritual ) reasons. Ethnobotanical knowl鄄
edge, discovered and passed down through the gen鄄
erations by oral means, has resulted in the ethnobo鄄
tanical knowledge that we can encounter today
( Jain, 2011; Martin, 1996; Pei, 2010, 2002,
1998; Pei et al., 2009)
The rich store of knowledge about plants, as
traditionally held by rural communities, is today of鄄
ten being rapidly eroded. Globalization is leading to
a more uniform world culturally, with much wisdom
gained by our ancestors being lost. Since traditional
knowledge about plants can be so useful and since
(for certain) only a fraction has so far been recor鄄
ded, the inventorying and documentation of ethnobo鄄
tanical knowledge remain an urgent need (Hamilton
and Hamilton, 2006; Pei and Huai, 2007). I com鄄
ment the use of digitized databases to store ethnobo鄄
tanical information. Not only are such systems effi鄄
cient as information stores, they also facilitate the e鄄
valuation of this information for practical purposes,
for example according to where particular knowledge
of plants is held (particular communities or places)
or according to categories of plant use (e. g. plants
used for food, medicine, energy production, fodder,
as colourants, etc).
2) Roles of ethnobotany in biodiversity conservation
Traditional knowledge is important in maintai鄄
ning biodiversity. The term ‘plant genetic resources爷
refers to genetically determined traits in useful plants
that can be identified, characterized, evaluated and
exploited by people to meet their needs. These re鄄
sources should not simply be regarded as types of
plants having unique stretches of DNA, but also as
expressions of people爷s cultures. Well known plant
genetic resources include Jasmine Rice in Thailand,
Basmati Rice in India and Long鄄stem Rice in Myan鄄
mar. Chinese examples include Cultivated Ginseng
(Panax ginseng) and Gou鄄ji Berry (Lycium chinen鄄
sis) (CBD, 1992; Prance, 1995; Xue et al., 2009;
McNeely, 2009; Hamilton and Hamilton, 2006).
Over the last half century, the rapid accelera鄄
tion of globalization has resulted in the disappear鄄
ance of many traditional varieties of crops. For in鄄
stance, in Xishuangbanna, a tropical prefecture in
Yunnan, China, some 800 varieties of paddy rice
and 400 varieties of upland rice were planted in
farmers爷 fields during the 1970 爷 s ( Pei, 1998,
2002 ). Today, nearly all of these have disap鄄
peared, thanks to their displacement by high yield鄄
ing modern varieties and the large scale abandon鄄
ment of shifting agriculture. Maintaining plant genet鄄
ic resources among forest plants is another big issue
in biodiversity conservation. Land鄄use change, in鄄
cluding deforestation, and the over鄄harvesting of for鄄
est plants are the main factors causing loss. Tradi鄄
tionally, people living in forest areas have had a
high dependency on forest resources for their liveli鄄
hoods, so that the decline in these resources can
have the potential to threaten their survival ( Pei,
1998). Ethnobotanical research can contribute to
conservation and sustainable development in this
context, including where there are protected areas.
It can help in the understanding of the values,
knowledge and uses of forest plants by local people.
It can point to new ways of managing forest re鄄
sources, as appropriate to modern economic pres鄄
sures, as well as local societies and cultures.
Ethnobotanical studies can be undertaken nar鄄
rowly, concentrating only on certain specific interac鄄
tions of people with plants, or they can be carried
out with reference to a wider picture. Plants ( indi鄄
vidually or collectively as vegetation) can offer a
wide range of benefits to people ( Hamilton and
Hamilton, 2006; Jain, 2011; Prance, 1995; Pei
and Huai, 2007; Pei, 2010, 1995; Jansen et al.,
1991). While scientists interested in conservation
have generally paid attention especially to species爷
survival and sustainable use, plants also contribute
to conservation through their roles in delivering eco鄄
system services. The types of plants and vegetation
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present in a neighborhood can have a big influence
on the local climate, the delivery of water supplies,
and the availability of pollinating insects (Hamilton
and Hamilton, 2006; Pei et al., 2009). Using eth鄄
nobotany to find out how local people perceive eco鄄
system services can be a fruitful field of research.
3) Roles of ethnobotany in rural community de鄄
velopment
Compared to many other scientific fields, the
scope for research in ethnobotany is very wide, with
unusually strong foci on field work, people鄄centered is鄄
sues and problem鄄solving. The work generally involves
frequent discussions with community members, inclu鄄
ding local experts on plants, para鄄taxonomists and
bare鄄foot doctors, as well as other informants (Cotton,
1996; Martin, 1995; Pei and Huai, 2007).
From the perspective of the sustainable develop鄄
ment, ethnobotanists can be especially interested in
community practices that result in the sustainable use
of plant resources, local methods for maintaining ge鄄
netic resources, traditional practices that promote the
conservation of forests, and the roles of local spiritual
beliefs and practices in traditional conservation (Pei
et al., 2010, 2009, 2001, 1998, 1995, 1993). Eth鄄
nobotanical studies can identify new technologies
that are ecologically and culturally appropriate.
Many stakeholders can be involved in the ex鄄
ploitation of biodiversity鄄producers, harvesters, mid鄄
dlemen, traders, processors, consumers and policy
makers. How the benefits from such exploitation are
distributed among the various stakeholders can have
important implications for success in achieving con鄄
servation, as well as for social justice. Ethnobota鄄
nists can be in a good position to help achieve satis鄄
factory arrangements, working with different stake鄄
holders and following certain principles on benefit鄄
sharing developed internationally ( Hamilton and
Hamilton, 2006; Pei et al., 2010, 2007).
2摇 Challenges to sustainable use of biodi鄄
versity and conservation
Throughout the world, biodiversity is reduced
diminishing, as shown, for example, by the large
number of species facing extinction and the rapid
loss or degradation of many natural ecosystems. As
many as 34 000 species of plants have been recorded
as globally threatened (about 10% of the total, IU鄄
CN 1997). The figure for China is 4 400 out of a total
of 34 000 species (12. 9%) (Raven, 2011).
The global biodiversity crisis is potentially cata鄄
strophic, since human life depends on plants and
animals not only for its day鄄by鄄day survival ( for
food, medicine, industrial materials etc), but for
maintenance of the ecosystem which people inhabit.
The biological world nurtures us in every way.
Biodiversity is our life support system.
Over recent years, many developing countries
have placed great reliance on their biodiversity
wealth in the development of their economies. China
has made extensive use of their biological (and cul鄄
tural) diversity to develop their tourist industries
(both internal and external) . China has developed
vast pharmaceutical and herbal industries based on
medicinal and aromatic plants (Pei, 2001, 1998).
But these successes in exploiting biodiversity should
not make us complacent. The world is teetering on
an environmental precipice. Much greater challenges
lie ahead, fueled by the demands for resources and
pollution produced by a rapidly expanding ( and al鄄
ready vast) human population and climate change.
It has been projected that the world爷 s population
could reach 22. 5 billion by the year 2050 and that
average temperatures in China will rise by 1. 3 益 -
2. 1 益 by 2020 and 2. 3 益 -3. 3 益 by 2050 (Ra鄄
ven, 2011; McNeely, 2009).
Peter Raven, the eminent American botanist and
conservationist, has recently pointed out (2011) that
the collective pressure placed by our numbers and our
activities on the global environment has reached a
“frightening and rapidly increasing level冶 of unsus鄄
tainability. He estimates that more than half of all
species in the world will become extinct during the
21st century. According to a website (globalfootprint.
org), current use of natural resources exceeds the
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long鄄term capacity of the world to sustain production
of these resources by 150% . We are living off envi鄄
ronmental capital. Future generations are bound to
suffer. Inevitably, they will inhabit a world with a
narrower base of natural resources than we have to鄄
day and which is culturally and biologically less di鄄
verse. It is likely that the scourge of poverty will
grow. Even today, a billion people worldwide are
malnourished and another 100 million live on the
verge of starvation (Raven, 2011).
3 摇 Biocultural approaches to sustainable
use and conservation of biodiversity
Sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity
are central challenges of economic development to鄄
day. We know that the tropics hold the largest por鄄
tion of the world爷s biodiversity ( over 50% of spe鄄
cies). For instance, Southeast Asia holds the second
largest area of tropical rain forest in the world and a
very large number of economically important species
of plants ( Jasen et al., 1991). As many as 1 556
species of medicinal plants have been recorded from
Thailand, as well as 1 000 species of orchids (Kan鄄
chit, 2006). China, which is a very large country
reaching into the tropics, contains 35 337 species of
plants and 8 804 species of animals (2008 figures)
(Pei, 2010). Biodiversity in our region is excep鄄
tional, not only for its great richness in terms of
numbers of species and types of habitat, but also be鄄
cause of the roles it plays in local cultures and econ鄄
omies. Many types of plants have known uses. Ac鄄
cording to Jasen et al. (1991), 6 186 species of e鄄
conomically important plants in some 40 commodity
groups have been recorded in Southeast Asia.
For example, Thailand and China are multi鄄na鄄
tionality countries, with a diversity of ethnic groups,
each often associated with a particular habitat. Each
cultural group has its own knowledge and traditions
relating to its plants. Each has traditional ways of
maintaining local plant resources and plant diversity.
The rich ethnobotanical knowledge of these diverse
ethnic groups is an expression of long periods of in鄄
teraction between people and plants. It is a resource
that urgently needs to be further studied, inventoried
and properly recorded.
Cultural and biological diversity are intimately
and inextricably linked (McNeely, 2009). Through
many years of ethnobotanical studies in China, I
have come to the conclusion that there is a co鄄evolu鄄
tionary relationship between biological and cultural
diversity; there are mutual independencies ( Pei,
1995, 1998, 2002, 2010). The roots of apprecia鄄
tion of the value of biodiversity run very deep in
many traditional worldviews, connected to spiritual
understandings and religions ( McNeely, 2009 ).
Recent ethnobotanical studies have revealed that tra鄄
ditional beliefs related to religion are powerful forces
promoting environmental preservation, including
conservation of biodiversity. Examples of which I
have direct experience are the Holy Hill Sacred Nat鄄
ural Sites of the Dai people in Xishuangbannan and
the Sacred Mountains in Tibetan area of Yunnan
(Pei, 1993). Nearly twenty years ago, the Conven鄄
tion on Biological Diversity ( adopted at the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992) acknowledged
the usefulness of encouraging use of biological re鄄
sources following traditional practices, given that
they are often compatible with the conservation of bi鄄
ological diversity (Article 10; CBD).
Natural ecosystems cannot be understood, man鄄
aged and conserved without recognizing the cultural in鄄
fluences that have shaped and still influence them. Cul鄄
tural diversity linked to biological diversity holds the key
for ensuring resilience in both social and ecological sys鄄
tems (Lee and Schaaf, 2003). Research methods associ鄄
ated with ethobotany can be powerful tools for working
out how best cultural and biological diversity can be as鄄
sociated to meet the challenges of today. From my ex鄄
perience, I suggest the following initial suggestions
about ways to forge biocultural connections:
1) Recognize the values of traditional knowledge
and related practices for finding ways to improve the
management of natural resources and maintain biodi鄄
versity. Be aware that approaches to development
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based solely on modern science and technologies have
far too often neglected traditional knowledges.
2) Conduct ethnobotanical inventories as entry鄄
points for finding ways to improve the management of
natural resources for sustainable development and con鄄
servation. Enter the data collected in digitized informa鄄
tion systems to ensure that this information survives and
remains available to assist development in the future.
3) Integrate traditional and scientific knowledge
in evaluating the use and management of plant re鄄
sources, and for developing of new products.
4 ) Promote community participation in the
management of biodiversity for conservation and sus鄄
tainable use. Among the key issues are the estab鄄
lishment or development of suitable community insti鄄
tutions, the development of sustainable harvesting
systems, and fair benefit鄄sharing from the exploita鄄
tion of biodiversity.
5) Try to understand all the ways in which local
people perceive the values of local plant diversity, in鄄
cluding for the provision of ecosystem services. Be a鄄
ware of the power of spiritual and religious values for
determining how people relate to their environments.
6) Empower community groups and local gov鄄
ernmental institutions to appreciate the biocultural
approach to conservation and development. Evaluate
the impact of higher level policies on local institu鄄
tions and, where necessary, try to influence policy
reform to better support the efforts of people working
at the local level.
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