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Forest Transition in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan

云南西双版纳地区森林转型特征



全 文 :云南西双版纳地区森林转型特征∗
翟德利1ꎬ2ꎬ3ꎬ 许建初1ꎬ2ꎬ 戴志聪3
(1 中国科学院昆明植物研究所山地生态系统研究中心ꎬ 昆明  650201ꎻ 2 世界混农林中心 (ICRAF) 中亚东亚办公室ꎬ
昆明  650201ꎻ 3 江苏大学环境与安全工程学院环境生态研究所ꎬ 江苏 镇江  212013)
摘要: 森林转型是指森林覆盖率由净减少到净增加的过程ꎮ 中国森林早在 20 世纪 80 年代就进入了转型
期ꎬ 然而ꎬ 中国热带地区的总森林覆盖率虽呈增长趋势ꎬ 但依旧存在着天然林大量被毁的现象ꎮ 鉴于天然
林对森林生态系统功能的重要作用ꎬ 本研究通过加入森林类型分类的内容ꎬ 以西双版纳为例探讨其森林转
型的真实特征ꎮ 结果表明: 森林转型理论单纯以 “总森林” 覆盖率为研究对象ꎬ 忽视了其他森林类型的
动态变化ꎬ 甚至掩盖了 “天然林” 的真实动态变化ꎮ 西双版纳的森林转型主要是人工种植林的扩张所致ꎬ
只是树木数量统计上的转型ꎮ 事实上ꎬ 自 1988年以来ꎬ 西双版纳的天然林一直在锐减ꎮ 所以建议未来关
于森林转型的研究应将 “森林” 区分成不同的森林类型加以研究ꎮ
关键词: 西双版纳ꎻ 森林转型ꎻ 森林类型ꎻ 毁林ꎻ 橡胶林
中图分类号: Q 948              文献标志码: A              文章编号: 2095-0845(2015)01-093-06
Forest Transition in Xishuangbannaꎬ Yunnan
ZHAI De ̄li1ꎬ2ꎬ3ꎬ XU Jian ̄chu1ꎬ2ꎬ DAI Zhi ̄cong3
(1 Center of Mountain Ecosystem System (CMES)ꎬ Kunming Institute of Botanyꎬ Chinese Academy of Sciencesꎬ Kunming 650201ꎬ
Chinaꎻ 2 World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)ꎬ Central and East Asia Officeꎬ Kunming 650201ꎬ Chinaꎻ 3 Institute of Environment
and Ecologyꎬ School of the Environment and Safety Engineeringꎬ Jiangsu Universityꎬ Zhenjiangꎬ Jiangsu 212013ꎬ China)
Abstract: Forest transition is a process of overall forest cover from net loss to net gain over time. Forest transition
especially the process after turning point from deforestation to reforestation has inspired lots of researches for its po ̄
tential to improve environmental services. China has undergone forest transition since the 1980s. Howeverꎬ in tropi ̄
cal Chinaꎬ deforestation was still existedꎬ while the overall forest cover increased greatly. To investigate this issueꎬ
we conducted this research by classifying overall forest into natural forest and plantation in Xishuangbannaꎬ which
has undergone forest transition and deforestation and overall forest cover increasing. We found that natural forest con ̄
tinues decreasing while overall forest cover increasing and plantation expansion in forest transition. The forest transi ̄
tion in Xishuangbanna was found to be a tree cover transitionꎬ which was mainly contributed by large plantation ex ̄
pansion. In Xishuangbannaꎬ deforestation is still undergoing after its overall forest cover transition occurred in 1988.
The general overall forest definition used by forest transition will not be able to recognize deforestation when natural
forests are displaced by plantations because the overall forest cover remains unchanged or even increasing. We there ̄
fore recommended to classify forest types in forest transition researches.
Key words: Xishuangbannaꎻ Forest transitionꎻ Forest typeꎻ Deforestationꎻ Rubber plantation
  Forest transition (FT) from net loss to net gain
in areas with low income and high population density
in Asian countries (e􀆰 g. Chinaꎬ Indiaꎬ and Vietnam)
has inspired a lot of research (Rudel et al.ꎬ 2005ꎻ
植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报  2015ꎬ 37 (1): 93~98
Plant Diversity and Resources                                    DOI: 10.7677 / ynzwyj201514051
∗ Funding: National Natural Science Foundation of China (31300403)ꎻ China Pastdoctoral Science Foundation (2013M540722)ꎻ CGIAR
Research Program 6: Forestsꎬ Treesꎬ and Agroforestry
Received date: 2014-03-25ꎬ Accepted date: 2014-07-29
作者简介: 翟德利 (1983-) 女ꎬ 博士后ꎬ 主要从事森林转型和大尺度人工林遥感制图研究ꎮ E ̄mail: zhaideli@mail􀆰 kib􀆰 ac􀆰 cn
Matherꎬ 2007). Both the drivers and causes of forest
transition have been studied to enhance understand ̄
ing of the forest transition theories in order to pro ̄
mote or speed up forest transition especially the
process after turning points from deforestation to re ̄
forestation in countries that are suffering from forest
losses or deforestation ( Xu et al.ꎬ 2007ꎻ Culasꎬ
2012ꎻ Matherꎬ 2007ꎻ Rudel et al.ꎬ 2005)ꎬ as for ̄
est transition is seen to have the potential to improve
environmental services ( Matherꎬ 2007ꎻ Rudel et
al.ꎬ 2005). Overall forest coverꎬ and environmental
services in some regions have increased greatly (Xu
et al.ꎬ 2007ꎻ Liu et al.ꎬ 2008). China has been un ̄
dergoing its forest transition since the 1980sꎬ and
state policies have played a central role in it (Math ̄
erꎬ 2007ꎻ Rudelꎬ 2009ꎻ Rudel et al.ꎬ 2005).
Howeverꎬ in tropical Chinaꎬ although the forest
transition has been occurred in 1980s (Xu et al.ꎬ
2007ꎻ Zhang et al.ꎬ 2000)ꎬ the natural forest in
tropical China is still suffering from natural forest
losing (or deforestation) despite an overall increase
in forest cover (Li et al.ꎬ 2009ꎻ Zhai et al.ꎬ 2014ꎻ
Dai et al.ꎬ 2013). There is an ongoing discrepancy
between continuing deforestation and increasing o ̄
verall forest cover ( Zhai et al.ꎬ 2014ꎻ Xuꎬ 2011ꎻ
Ziegler et al.ꎬ 2009). Compare to the continuing de ̄
forestation and increasing overall forest cover is the
greatly expansion of rubber plantation.
In tropical Chinaꎬ rubber treesꎬ which were in ̄
troduced more than fifty years ago to ensure a steady
supply of raw rubber latex (Zhai et al.ꎬ 2012ꎻ Xu et
al.ꎬ 2013). The rubber plantations were managed by
state farmsꎬ the majority of which were established
during the 1950s (Xu et al.ꎬ 2013ꎻ Lardyꎬ 1983).
It was highly expanded from the late 1980s (Zhai et
al.ꎬ 2012ꎻ Xu et al.ꎬ 2013). The number of rubber
plantations in Hainan has increased by 21􀆰 71%
since the 1950s ( from 0􀆰 54% to 14􀆰 16% in 1988
and 22􀆰 25% in 2008 ( Wang et al.ꎬ 2012 ). In
Xishuangbannaꎬ the number of rubber plantations
has increased by 20􀆰 89% since 1970s (from 1􀆰 25%
in 1976 to 3􀆰 63% in 1988ꎬ 11􀆰 30% in 2003 and
22􀆰 14% in 2010 (Xu et al.ꎬ 2013ꎻ Li et al.ꎬ 2007).
Howeverꎬ the natural forests in both regions de ̄
creased largely at the same timeꎬ with the natural
forests in Xishuangbanna decreasing from 69􀆰 10% in
1976 to 60􀆰 37% in 1988ꎬ 49􀆰 80% in 2003 and
36􀆰 60% in 2009 ( Li et al.ꎬ 2007ꎻ Jing and Maꎬ
2012). Hainan natural forest cover decreased from
24􀆰 45% in the 1950s to 13􀆰 50% in 1980ꎬ 8􀆰 30%
in 1988 and then an increase to 12􀆰 00% in 1995
(Zhang et al.ꎬ 2000). Rubber plantations have be ̄
come one of the major land uses in tropical China.
The coexistence of deforestation and plantation
expansion in forest transition made us to think the
reason. We assumed that the unclassified forest type
in forest transition theory might be the reason for
that. Forest transition research generally focusses on
the dynamics of overall forest coverꎬ and not on the
dynamics of the cover of different forest types (e􀆰 g.
natural forest and plantations) ( Perz and Skoleꎬ
2003). The most widely used for forest transition re ̄
search is the FAO forest definition (Romijn et al.ꎬ
2013). Forest is defined by FAO as an area of more
than 0􀆰 5 ha and a canopy cover larger than 10%ꎬ
with trees higher than 5 m or having the capability of
growing to be more than 5 m tall. Within this defini ̄
tionꎬ FAO does not make a distinction between natu ̄
ral forests and artificially createdꎬ i􀆰 e. planted for ̄
ests. The same is true for Chinaꎬ where forest plan ̄
tations (e􀆰 g. rubberꎬ Eucalyptusꎬ pine) are consid ̄
ered as forests. Forests are defined in China to con ̄
sist of both natural and planted forests with an area
of more than 0􀆰 067 ha and a canopy cover larger
than 20% (Xiaoꎬ 2005). Howeverꎬ natural forests
and plantation have quite different impacts on re ̄
gional environments that substantially affect ecosys ̄
tem services providing. Natural forests have a greater
potential for carbon sequencingꎬ biodiversity conser ̄
vationꎬ and mitigating climate changes than planta ̄
tions ( Xu et al.ꎬ 2007ꎻ Houghton and Hacklerꎬ
1999ꎻ Li et al.ꎬ 2008). Large ̄scale land surface
change by plantations significantly affects regional
climates and local hydrological cycles and water stor ̄
49                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 37卷
age (Guardiola ̄Claramonte et al.ꎬ 2008ꎻ Xu et al.ꎬ
2013). The classifying of forest types in forest transi ̄
tion is therefore an important issue in forest transi ̄
tion work. Howeverꎬ until nowꎬ there has been little
in the literature regarding classifying forest types in
forest transition researches.
The contradiction of natural forestsꎬ plantationꎬ
and overall forest cover in forest transition provides
us with a unique opportunity to study current forest
transition theory on a much finer scaleꎬ and to iden ̄
tify characteristics which may further develop the for ̄
est transition theory. Thereforeꎬ we conduct this re ̄
search to test our assumption using overall forestꎬ
natural forestꎬ and rubber plantation in Xishuang ̄
banna to answer the contradicted question.
1  Experimental section
1􀆰 1  Study sites
Xishuangbanna (21°08′-22°36′ Nꎬ 99°56′-
101°50′ E)ꎬ one of the largest tropical regions in
Chinaꎬ covers 19 150 km2 and borders Laos to the
south and Myanmar to the southwest. It is considered
biodiversity hotspots with high biodiversity values
(Francisco ̄Ortega et al.ꎬ 2010ꎻ Zhu and Roosꎬ 2004).
The altitude varies from 475 to 2 430 mꎬ and roughly
95% of the region is covered with mountains and
hills. The climate in Xishuangbanna is influenced by
warm ̄wet air masses from the Indian Ocean in sum ̄
merꎬ continental air masses in winter and monsoonꎬ
resulting in a rainy season from May to Octoberꎬ and
a dry season from November to April ( Li et al.ꎬ
2007). Its annual rainfall ranges from 1 100 to 2 400
mm. The combined effects of these special geographi ̄
cal and climatic conditions in Xishuangbanna have
led to this region having the highest biodiversity in
China (Zhang and Caoꎬ 1995). There are five pri ̄
mary forest types: tropical seasonal rain forestꎬ trop ̄
ical mountain rain forestꎬ evergreen broad ̄leaved
forestꎬ monsoon forest over limestoneꎬ and monsoon
forest on river banks (Zhang and Caoꎬ 1995).
1􀆰 2  Methods
Xishuangbanna data were collected by extrac ̄
ting data from published research papers. Relevant
peer ̄reviewed publications were collected from ISI
Web of Science using a combination of search terms
( “forest transition∗” OR deforestation OR degrada ̄
tion OR “ forest regrowth” OR “ land use change”
OR “ forest change ” OR “ forest cover ”ꎬ AND
Xishuangbanna). To keep data qualityꎬ the defini ̄
tion of forest and natural forestꎬ and the methodology
used which should be consistency was first checked
among the collected publications. Then another
round of data quality and consistency were checked
among the collected publications. It was found that
the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden has
published time ̄series data with consistent forest defi ̄
nitions and methodologyꎬ we selected data from the
search resultsꎬ which were consistent with these def ̄
initions. Both natural forest and rubber plantation
data were collected from these references. The forest
cover data were also collected: this included natural
forests and rubber plantations (Li et al.ꎬ 2007).
The forest cover data in this research refers to
all land with tree canopy cover of more than 30%
before 1994 and more than 20% after 1994ꎬ and ar ̄
eas of more than 0􀆰 5 ha (Zhai et al.ꎬ 2012)ꎬ which
is also from FAO’s ‘ forest’ definition ( a general
forest definition) ( Lambin and Meyfroidtꎬ 2010ꎻ
Rudel et al.ꎬ 2005). Rubber plantation as a main
forest plantation in tropical China was selected as a
surrogate to reflect the changes in forest plantation o ̄
ver time. Forest transition in this research represents
the inflection point or transition from deforestation to
reforestation rather than the whole forest cover deve ̄
lopment process over time or U ̄shaped curve (Xu et
al.ꎬ 2007ꎻ Rudel et al.ꎬ 2005ꎻ Angelsen and Ru ̄
delꎬ 2013). The three ̄stage forest transition frame ̄
work has been adopted according to Angelsen and
Rudel (2013): high forest cover and low deforesta ̄
tion stageꎬ accelerated deforestation and decreasing
forest cover stageꎬ stabilization and eventual reversal
of the deforestation process stage.
A Quadratic Non ̄linear Regression Model was
conducted and visualized using SigmaPlot Version 11
591期                    ZHAI De ̄Li et al.: Forest Transition in Xishuangbannaꎬ Yunnan                       
to detect the relationships between time (year) and
the cover of forestꎬ natural forestꎬ and rubber plan ̄
tation.
2  Results
In Xishuangbannaꎬ the turning point for overall
forest transition occurred in 1988ꎬ and after the
turning point of overall forest transition in 1988ꎬ its
forest cover went into a relatively stable state or the
third stage of forest transition: stabilization and re ̄
versal of the deforestation process (Fig􀆰 1A). How ̄
everꎬ natural forest losses continued and the rubber
plantation kept increasing ( Fig􀆰 1) after the forest
transition went into stabilization. The overall forest
showed a U ̄shaped curve. The natural forest in
Xishuangbanna has significantly decreased with time
(R2 = 0􀆰 9677ꎬ P < 0􀆰 0001ꎻ Fig􀆰 1B). The natural
forest was significantly reduced over time ( R2 =
0􀆰 9677ꎬ P<0􀆰 0001ꎻ Fig􀆰 1B). From 1992-2003ꎬ
rubber plantation in Xishuangbanna showed a linear
increaseꎬ while at the same time natural forests
showed a linear decrease. From 1999-2010ꎬ rubber
plantation expansion and deforestation was highly ac ̄
celerated. The rubber plantation increased signifi ̄
cantly over time (R2 =0􀆰 8782ꎬ P<0􀆰 0006ꎻ Fig􀆰 1B).
The coexistence of natural forest lossꎬ rubber planta ̄
tion expansion and overall forest cover increasing
was found.
3  Discussions
3􀆰 1  Coexistence of deforestationꎬ plantation ex ̄
pansionꎬ and overall forest transition
The coexistence of deforestation and forest tran ̄
sition was observed in Xishuangbanna. The forest
definition used by forest transition theory disguises
the fact that natural forest continues losing. With this
forest definitionꎬ deforestation will not be recognized
when natural forests are displaced by mono ̄culture
plantations because the overall forest cover remains
unchanged. The previous forest definition in forest
transition could not reflect the changes in natural for ̄
estꎬ which led to a great underestimation of deforest ̄
ation (Romijn et al.ꎬ 2013). The deforestation will
not be identified when natural forests are displaced
by mono ̄culture plantationsꎬ while the overall forest
cover remains unchanged or even increasing. The
driving forces of deforestation are also being neglec ̄
ted with this general forest definitionꎬ especially in
tropical regions where the forest plantations are widely
developed (Romijn et al.ꎬ 2013). This forest transition
Fig􀆰 1  Changes of forest coverꎬ natural forestꎬ and rubber plantation cover over time in Xishuangbanna in 1976-2010
A. Forest transition and changes of natural forest and rubber plantation over time. The blue dashed line is the turning point of forest transitionꎻ
B. Regression results of forest coverꎬ natural forest coverꎬ and rubber plantation over time based on Quadratic Non ̄linear Regression Model
69                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 37卷
in Xishuangbanna is a tree cover transition (Fig􀆰 1)ꎬ
and it is highly contributed by plantation expansion
(rubber plantation in this research). Many research ̄
ers in China and abroad have recognized the problem
with the general definition of “ forest”ꎬ which has
been blamed for inducing plantation expansion and
deforestation (Li et al.ꎬ 2007ꎻ Zhai et al.ꎬ 2014ꎻ
Zhai et al.ꎬ 2012ꎻ Gibbs et al.ꎬ 2010ꎻ Aziz et al.ꎬ
2010) and also led to serious ecological conse ̄
quences ( Ziegler et al.ꎬ 2009ꎻ Xuꎬ 2011ꎻ Xu et
al.ꎬ 2013). Howeverꎬ till nowꎬ there is no resear ̄
ches found that continuing deforestation after the
turning points of forest transitionꎬ and the continuing
forest transition was highly contributed by plantation
expansion. The changes in classifying different forest
types in forest transition have successfully identify
deforestation and the contribution of plantation to o ̄
verall forest transition (Romijn et al.ꎬ 2013). The
unclassifying forest types and general definition of
“ forest” being used in forest transition hides the fact
of deforestation with highly expansion of plantationꎬ
a point which has been discussed in our previous re ̄
search (Zhai et al.ꎬ 2014). Howeverꎬ despite the
widespread awareness that there are problems with
this forest transition definition ( Lambin and Mey ̄
froidtꎬ 2010)ꎬ there is still no clear research differ ̄
entiating natural forest and forest plantation from the
overall forest in forest transition theory.
The general forest definition of forest transition
does not reflect the changes in natural forests and the
associated environmental services. Howeverꎬ natural
forests have a greater potential for carbon sequen ̄
cingꎬ biodiversity conservationꎬ and mitigating cli ̄
mate changes than plantations ( Xu et al.ꎬ 2007ꎻ
Houghton and Hacklerꎬ 1999ꎻ Li et al.ꎬ 2008).
Forest definition has significant impacts on the esti ̄
mation of both deforestation and degradation (Romi ̄
jn et al.ꎬ 2013). In order to do justice to these
differencesꎬ a forest definition should therefore at
least distinguish between natural forest and planta ̄
tion (Sasaki and Putzꎬ 2009ꎻ Romijn et al.ꎬ 2013)ꎬ
especially in forest transition. It might have more eco ̄
logical significance if both the overall forest cover and
different types of forest cover are used in the future.
3􀆰 2  Plantation expansion was the major reason
for forest transition in Xishuangbanna
In Xishuangbannaꎬ the forest transition was
mainly a product of plantation expansion ( Fig􀆰 1).
This was also found to be the major reason for defor ̄
estation as plantation expansion was achieved throu ̄
gh displacement of natural forest (Zhai et al.ꎬ 2012ꎻ
Li et al.ꎬ 2007ꎻ Zhang et al.ꎬ 2000). Our findings
concerning the turning points of forest transition were
consistent with the published literature (Xu et al.ꎬ
2007).
In Xishuangbannaꎬ the tree cover has already
entered its forest transition (Xu et al.ꎬ 2007)ꎬ but
there is continuing deforestation and it is unclear
when a net increase of natural forest will be a ̄
chieved. The overall forest cover after the turning
points may have been underestimatedꎬ as other forest
plantations were not included in the calculation
(e􀆰 g. pulp plantation increased by 5% from 1988 to
2008 in Hainan (Wang et al.ꎬ 2012). Howeverꎬ
this factor was omitted due to lacking of data and the
fact that other plantations account for only a small
proportion of the landscape ( Li et al.ꎬ 2009 )ꎬ
which doesn’t affect the natural forests in Xishuang ̄
banna. Further researches on the time differences
between overall forest cover and that of natural forest
might have significantly impacts on future modeling
of natural forest dynamics and provide meaningful
conservation implications and suggestions on natural
forest conservation.
Acknowledgments: The authors are very grateful to Chen Si ̄
Chong from the University of New South Wales for providing
comments and suggestions on the methods.
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