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Indigenous Knowledge and Use of Anisodus tanguticus in Pastoral Communities of Eastern Tibet, China, and Its Implications for Local Adaptation

西藏东部牧民对藏药植物山莨菪的传统利用及环境适应意义



全 文 :西藏东部牧民对藏药植物山莨菪的传统利用及环境适应意义∗
付  瑶1ꎬ2ꎬ3ꎬ 王  赟4ꎬ 杨永平4ꎬ5∗∗ꎬ 杨雪飞1ꎬ2ꎬ3∗∗
(1 中国科学院昆明植物研究所资源植物与生物技术重点实验室ꎬ 昆明  650201ꎻ 2 中国科学院东南亚生物多样性研究中心ꎬ
昆明  650201ꎻ 3 云南省野生资源植物研发重点实验室ꎬ 昆明  650201ꎻ 4 中国科学院青藏高原研究所昆明部ꎬ
昆明  650201ꎻ 5 中国西南野生生物种质资源库ꎬ 昆明  650201)
摘要: 野生植物资源及相关传统知识是传统人类社会应对自然灾害的重要基础ꎮ 在西藏东部地区ꎬ 传统藏
药植物山莨菪 (Anisodus tanguticus) 是当地牧民防御冬季低温灾害对牲畜造成伤害的一种重要的植物资源ꎮ
本文采用半结构访谈法和参与式观察法ꎬ 对 7个村 13个关键信息员ꎬ 以及 2 个村以畜牧为主的牧户进行
了访谈调查ꎮ 对牧民秋季收割山莨菪地上枯枝部分以备冬季饲喂家畜作为防御冬季雪灾和冷害等传统知识
和实践进行了记载ꎮ 针对山莨菪含剧毒的问题ꎬ 牧民采取严格控制采收时间和饲喂对象的方法来解决ꎮ 当
地社区积累了关于山莨菪生长习性、 用法、 功效等方面较为完整的知识ꎬ 并通过对其权属进行民间界定ꎬ
实现了对资源的良性管理ꎮ 这一案例表明: 人类在与自然长期互动的过程中所产生和积累的传统知识能够
为其防御自然灾害ꎬ 降低气候风险起关键性作用ꎮ
关键词: 传统知识ꎻ 牧民ꎻ 青藏高原ꎻ 饲料植物ꎻ 山莨菪
中图分类号: Q 948            文献标志码: A                文章编号: 2095-0845(2015)06-881-10
Indigenous Knowledge and Use of Anisodus tanguticus in Pastoral
Communities of Eastern Tibetꎬ Chinaꎬ and Its
Implications for Local Adaptation
FU Yao1ꎬ2ꎬ3ꎬ WANG Yun4ꎬ YANG Yong ̄ping4ꎬ5∗∗ꎬ YANG Xue ̄fei1ꎬ2ꎬ3∗∗
(1 Key Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnologyꎬ Kunming Institute of Botanyꎬ Chinese Academy of Sciencesꎬ Kunming
650201ꎬ Chinaꎻ 2 Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Instituteꎬ Chinese Academy of Sciencesꎬ Kunming 650201ꎬ Chinaꎻ
3 Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resourcesꎬ Kunming 650201ꎬ Chinaꎻ 4 Institute of Tibetan Plateau Researchꎬ
Kunmingꎬ Kunming Institute of Botanyꎬ Chinese Academy of Sciencesꎬ Kunming 650201ꎬ Chinaꎻ
5 Germplasm Bank of Wild Species in Southwest Chinaꎬ Kunming Institute of Botanyꎬ
Chinese Academy of Sciencesꎬ Kunming 650201ꎬ China)
Abstract: Wild plant resources and related indigenous knowledge often play important role in facilitating human so ̄
cieties to mitigate the impacts of natural disasters and climate variability. We present a case study of using a tradi ̄
tional herbꎬ Anisodus tanguticusꎬ in a novel way by local pastoralists on the eastern Tibetan Plateau in coping with
extreme winter events. Interviews of 13 key informants were carried out in seven villagesꎬ and in ̄depth household
surveys were conducted in two villages covering all the pastoral ̄dependent households. Participatory observation has
also been employed. We found that local herders applying dried above ground part of A􀆰 tanguticus as a supplementa ̄
ry feed to livestock in winterꎬ with the purpose of helping animals to overcome cold events and snow disasters. Ac ̄
植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报  2015ꎬ 37 (6): 881~890
Plant Diversity and Resources                                    DOI: 10.7677 / ynzwyj201515098

∗∗
Funding: Chinese Academy of Sciences (Western light Talent Cultural Project to Y. F.)ꎻ The Ministry of Science and Technology of China
(2012FY110300)ꎻ National Natural Science Foundation of China (31500268)
Author for correspondenceꎻ E ̄mail: xuefei@mail􀆰 kib􀆰 ac􀆰 cnꎻ yangyp@mail􀆰 kib􀆰 ac􀆰 cn
Received date: 2015-06-10ꎬ Accepted date: 2015-10-14
作者简介: 付瑶 (1981-) 女ꎬ 博士ꎬ 助理研究员ꎬ 从事民族植物学和自然资源管理研究ꎮ E ̄mail: fuyao@mail􀆰 kib􀆰 ac􀆰 cn
cording to local communitiesꎬ time of harvesting and type of animal to be fed are key factors of using this toxic plant.
Local communities have accumulated a rich repository of knowledge about A􀆰 tanguticusꎬ including its habitatꎬ life
historyꎬ usesꎬ and health enhancing effects. They developed an informal tenure system and benign management prac ̄
tices on this plant. This paper demonstrates that indigenous knowledge evolved from long ̄term human ̄nature interac ̄
tion is important in preventing climate induced damages and lowering the risk aroused from climate uncertainties.
Key words: Indigenous knowledgeꎻ Pastoralistsꎻ Tibetan Plateauꎻ Fodder plantsꎻ Anisodus tanguticus
  In recent decadesꎬ concerns have been raised
globally regarding the need for a better understand ̄
ing of climate change and its impacts on physical
and socioeconomic systems. This concern has led to
a focus on adaptation research (Schiper et al.ꎬ 2009).
As the magnitude and impacts of climate change in ̄
crease (IPCCꎬ 2007)ꎬ societies and government a ̄
gencies at various levelsꎬ from international to na ̄
tional and local scalesꎬ have engaged in diverse ac ̄
tions aimed at climate change adaptation and mitiga ̄
tion. Climate change adaptionꎬ as defined by the In ̄
tergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC)
(2007)ꎬ refers to activity aimed at avoiding or re ̄
ducing adverse impacts in relation to current and
projected climate changeꎬ while grasping emerging
opportunities (IPCCꎬ 2007).
The Tibetan Plateauꎬ referred to as the “roof of
the world”ꎬ is subject to extremely harsh environ ̄
mental conditions and is also one of the most sensi ̄
tive regions in the world to climate change (Zheng et
al.ꎬ 2002). Average air temperatures have increased
by 0􀆰 16 ℃ per decadeꎬ which is higher than the in ̄
crease in the Northern Hemisphere as a whole (Liu
and Chenꎬ 2000). The frequency of extreme events
such as snow disasters has shown a rising trend in
some regions of the plateau ( Zhang et al.ꎬ 2004ꎻ
Guo et al.ꎬ 2010). This plateau is also home to 10
million pastoralists (Longꎬ 2003) whose livelihoods
are dependent on its grasslands. Climate change has
been exerting considerable impacts on pastoral pro ̄
duction in the region. It is reducing grassland produc ̄
tivity (Klein et al.ꎬ 2007ꎻ Yu et al.ꎬ 2010)ꎬ and at ̄
tenuating livestock productionꎬ incrementally (Zhang
and Liꎬ 2009ꎻ Fu et al.ꎬ 2012). It also directly cau ̄
ses livestock loss through extreme events such as
snow disasters (Wu and Yanꎬ 2002ꎻ Millerꎬ 2000).
To reduce climate ̄induced risksꎬ adaptation pol ̄
icies for the Tibetan Plateau have been launched at
both the national and provincial levelsꎬ focusing on
environmental conservation and socioeconomic develo ̄
pment (NDRCꎬ 2007ꎻ DRCQꎬ 2008ꎻ DRC TARꎬ
2009). Howeverꎬ little is known about the effects
and efficiency of the implemented policies. Moreo ̄
verꎬ there is widespread awareness within the acade ̄
my that local communitiesꎬ with their indigenous
knowledgeꎬ have the capacity and mechanisms to
deal with a changing climate (Salick and Rossꎬ 2009ꎻ
Green and Raygorodetskyꎬ 2010). Tibetan pastoral ̄
istsꎬ for thousands yearsꎬ have demonstrated great
capacity to adapt to local environmental variability
by using their comprehensive indigenous knowledge
about local climateꎬ biodiversityꎬ etc (Goldstein and
Beallꎬ 1990ꎻ Wuꎬ 2004). Based on the knowledgeꎬ
pastoralists manage grasslands and livestock through
flexible institutional arrangements. Seasonal transhu ̄
mance and rotational grazing has been used to deal
with climate ̄induced variations of grassland produc ̄
tivity (Millerꎬ 2002ꎻ Wuꎬ 2004). Herd composition
is diversified according to vegetation type to mini ̄
mize livestock loss in cold winters (Millerꎬ 2002).
Varies fodder plants have been stored to enhance
livestock survive rate during winter and snow disas ̄
ters (Fu et al.ꎬ 2012).
On Bangda rangeland of eastern Tibetꎬ Chinaꎬ
Anisodus tanguticus (Maxim) Pascherꎬ has been used
by Tibetan pastoralists as a forage supplement in
winter to combat snow disasters which often cause
substantial livestock loss. Local communities have
developed a rich repository of knowledge about A􀆰 tang ̄
uticusꎬ on its habitatꎬ life historyꎬ harvestingꎬ usa ̄
288                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 37卷
gesꎬ effects etc. Intriguinglyꎬ howeverꎬ A􀆰 tanguticus
is also reported as a toxic plant (Ma et al.ꎬ 2015).
Despite of its popularity as herbal medicine for hu ̄
manꎬ there is no existing record of the application of
this poisonous plant for livestock health.
A􀆰 tanguticus is a perennial herbal species in
Solanaceae family. It is endemic to the Tibetan Plat ̄
eauꎬ and is thought to have originated in the south ̄
east of the plateau and subsequently to have expand ̄
ed its distribution to the interior part of the plateau
(Tu et al.ꎬ 2010). It usually grows on sunny grassy
slopesꎬ along roadsidesꎬ and near settlements at ele ̄
vations ranging from 2 000 to 4 400 m (Yangꎬ 1991ꎻ
FoCꎬ 2014). It has been used as medicinal plant in
both Tibetan Ethnomedicine (Ma et al.ꎬ 2015) and
traditional Chinese medicine ( Lee et al.ꎬ 2013).
According to a Tibetan taleꎬ A􀆰 tanguticus was gener ̄
ated from the poison of Brahmaꎬ the Hindu God of
Creation (Mao et al.ꎬ 2012). Traditionallyꎬ the roots
and seeds are mainly used for relieving pain such as
toothache and stomachacheꎬ and also for killing par ̄
asites and treating skin wounds caused by viral infec ̄
tions (Yangꎬ 1991ꎻ Lee et al.ꎬ 2013).
In this studyꎬ we aimed to exam the role of indig ̄
enous knowledge in adaptation to environmental uncer ̄
tainties and extreme climate eventsꎬ through investiga ̄
tion of the undocumented traditional knowledge and use
of A􀆰 tanguticus by Tibetan pastoralists in the Bangda
rangelandꎬ evaluation of its importance for local com ̄
munitiesꎬ and discussion of its implications for local
communities to adapt to local climate variability.
1  Methods
1􀆰 1  Study site
Bangda is a typical Tibetan highland pastoral
area. It is located in the upstream watershed of the
Salween River at an average elevation of 4 300 m a.s.
l. This area is covered mostly by the dominated Ko ̄
bresia sedgesꎬ accompanied by genera such as Carex
and Polygonum ( Sheehy et al.ꎬ 2006). Cold tem ̄
peratures characterize the climate hereꎬ with the fre ̄
quent occurrence of extreme climate events such as
snow disasters. The annual average temperature is a ̄
round 4-6 ℃ (Fanꎬ 2008)ꎬ and annual precipitati ̄
on is around 500-600 mm (Qi et al.ꎬ 2013). Snow
disasters are common in this regionꎬ occurring every
3-5 years according to metrological records (Zhangꎬ
2013). They usually occur from September to Aprilꎬ
and are especially frequent from February to Aprilꎬ
which may cause substantial livestock loss.
Bangda comprises four townships under the ad ̄
ministration of Baxoi County in the Tibetan Autono ̄
mous Region of China. The livelihoods of the com ̄
munities in these townships are mainly dependent on
grazing ̄based animal husbandry. Our research fo ̄
cused on one townshipꎬ i􀆰 e. Yiqing Townshipꎬ where
A􀆰 tanguticus is abundant (Fig􀆰 1). Yiqing Township
comprises a total area of 900 km2 with 2 500 popula ̄
tion. There are 36 villages within Yiqing Township
with the number of households ranging from two to
21. Yaks are the main livestock raised by local peopleꎬ
along with sheepꎬ goatsꎬ and horses. Grazing activi ̄
ties are seasonally transhumant. Local pastoralists
generally stay in winter pastures for eight monthsꎬ
extending from September to Aprilꎬ and then spend
2 months (usually June and July) in summer pas ̄
tures at higher elevations. During the remaining part
of the yearꎬ they move to spring and autumn pas ̄
tures (Fu et al.ꎬ 2012).
Fig􀆰 1  Location of the study area
3886期      FU Yao et al.: Indigenous Knowledge and Use of Anisodus tanguticus in Pastoral Communities of 􀆺       
1􀆰 2  Data collection and analysis
Data were collected during four field trips car ̄
ried out during both summers and winters from 2009
to 2010. Each field trip was for a period of about 1-
2 months. The methods employed for this study were
semi ̄structured interviews and participatory observa ̄
tion. All interviews with villagers were conducted
with the help of local interpretersꎬ and all partici ̄
pants gave their informed consent to be interviewed.
There are two aspects in our field researches:
investigation of local knowledge of A􀆰 tanguticusꎬ and
evaluation of the importance of A􀆰 tanguticus for local
communities. Key interview questions have been lis ̄
ted in Table 1. To obtain local knowledge of A􀆰 tangu ̄
ticusꎬ 13 elders (4 females and 9 males) from 7 out
of the 36 villages in Yiqing Township were inter ̄
viewed. They were chosen as key informants because
they met both of the following criteria: they were o ̄
ver 60 years oldꎬ and they had rich herding experi ̄
ence and knowledge regarding A􀆰 tanguticus. Partici ̄
patory observation was conducted throughout the
field research to cross check and consolidate the in ̄
formation acquired through interviews.
To assess the importance of A􀆰 tanguticusꎬ house ̄
hold interviews have been carried out in two commu ̄
nities of Yiqing Township: Ni and Jiu villages (Fig􀆰 1).
The two villages are adjacent to each other and have
similar environmental conditions. Their winter and
summer pastures are locatedꎬ respectivelyꎬ at 4 300
and 4 500 m a.s.l. There are 20 householdꎬ 101 peo ̄
pleꎬ and 2 262 livestock (sheep unit) in Ni villageꎬ
while there are 11 householdꎬ 63 peopleꎬ and 1 892
livestock (sheep unit) in Jiu village. Incomes in this
area are derived from livestock productsꎬ truckingꎬ
harvesting of Cordyceps sinensisꎬ known locally as
yartsa gunbuꎬ which is the Tibetan word for a winter
worm summer grassꎬ provisionsꎬ and wage labor. Of
theseꎬ livestock products account for more than half
of total incomes (Fu et al.ꎬ 2012).
Households whose income from husbandry ex ̄
ceeded 50% of their total incomes were interviewed
at least once. In totalꎬ 11 households in Ni and 8
households in Jiu were interviewed. Household heads
(whose ages ranged from 30 to 74 years)ꎬ of both
gendersꎬ were interviewed. The underlying assump ̄
tion was that they possessed the most information.
Both female and male household heads were inter ̄
viewed at the same timeꎬ wherever possibleꎬ to ob ̄
tain more informationꎬ with the following exceptions:
three households having only female heads and one
household with only a male head.
Data were analyzed by pooling together the re ̄
sponses of all the individuals who were interviewed.
Voucher specimens of A􀆰 tanguticus were collected in
2009 and identified at the Kunming Institute of Bota ̄
nyꎬ at the Chinese Academy of Science.
Table 1  List of key interview questions
Interview questions in relation to local knowledge of A􀆰 tanguticus
1. Where does A􀆰 tanguticus usually growsꎬ is there anyone plant it?
2. What is the life history of A􀆰 tanguticus?
3. When and how to harvest and process A􀆰 tanguticus and why?
4. What are the usages and effects of A􀆰 tanguticus?
5. How to use A􀆰 tanguticus to feed livestockꎬ whenꎬ and to what kinds of animalsꎬ and why?
6. How to decide the quantity to be feed to certain animalꎬ and why?
7. Where have you learned the knowledge about A􀆰 tanguticus?
 ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄
Interview questions in relation to the importance of A􀆰 tanguticus
1. Do you apply A􀆰 tanguticus to your livestockꎬ and when and how?
2. For combating snow disastersꎬ do you think A􀆰 tanguticus is more importantꎬ equally importantꎬ less importantꎬ
  or not important in comparison to planted fodder and purchased forages?
488                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 37卷
2  Results
The use of A􀆰 tanguticus as a special livestock
feed is prevalent across Bangda rangeland and its ad ̄
jacent areas. Our findings indicated that local pasto ̄
ralists have developed a rich knowledge repository of
A􀆰 tanguticus as the result of their long ̄term interac ̄
tions with their local environment. Elders aged over
70 years confirmed that their knowledge regarding
the use of this plant had been passed down by their
ancestors over generations. Pastoralists’ knowledge of
A􀆰 tanguticus included its living habitatꎬ life historyꎬ
methods of useꎬ and effects on livestock health.
2􀆰 1  Habitat and life history
According to pastoralistsꎬ A􀆰 tanguticus general ̄
ly grows near their winter houses. It is then deliber ̄
ately enclosed within each household ’ s backyard
where forage crops are planted (Fig􀆰 2A-B). Recog ̄
nized by local people and confirmed by botanical
studies as a perennialꎬ this plant germinates in April
or May and flowers in June. The seeds mature in Au ̄
gustꎬ and the aboveground parts turn a yellow color
in late August or September. This is the critical and
right harvest time for its use as a special livestock
feed during winter and snow disasters.
2􀆰 2  Methods of traditional forage use
Pastoralists often harvest A􀆰 tanguticus together
with planted forage crops. The aboveground parts are
sundried and stored separately for subsequent use
(Fig􀆰 2C-D). During cold winter days and snow dis ̄
astersꎬ usually between September and Aprilꎬ this
forms a supplementary feed for livestockꎬ in addition
to planted and purchased forage crops. A household
memberꎬ usually the female headꎬ cuts the dried
A􀆰 tanguticus into small pieces and allocates these on
Fig􀆰 2  A. Flower of A􀆰 tanguticusꎻ B. A􀆰 tanguticus grows at local pastoralists’ backyard where forage crops are plantedꎻ
C. The aboveground parts of A􀆰 tanguticus are collected and sundried in autumnꎻ D. A􀆰 tanguticus was
prepared by a pastoral household to feed their livestock in winter
5886期      FU Yao et al.: Indigenous Knowledge and Use of Anisodus tanguticus in Pastoral Communities of 􀆺       
separate plates to feed to yaksꎬ sheepꎬ and goats.
Twice daily feeding is preferred if the amount of
stored A􀆰 tanguticus is sufficient. The amount of feed
differs according to weather conditions and the phys ̄
ical strength of each animal. During colder daysꎬ
larger amounts are required. The weaker animals and
milking yaks are given more feed. Howeverꎬ all the
pastoralists know that horses should not be fed this
plant or else they will be poisoned.
2􀆰 3  Effects upon livestock
Pastoralists in the Bangda rangeland are aware
that A􀆰 tanguticus is toxic. Howeverꎬ the degree of its
toxicity varies throughout its life history. It is not
harvested during the growing season as it is used for
livestock. Only the aboveground parts of the plant
are used when they turn yellow. There are three major
livestock health effects of A􀆰 tanguticusꎬ described
by pastoralistsꎬ as shown in Table 2. Firstꎬ it warms
the body of an animal. According to localsꎬ this effect
is equivalent to a person’ s consumption of alcohol
when feeling cold. Secondꎬ it improves the health of
livestockꎬ making them stronger and enhancing their
capacity to combat disease. Thirdꎬ it improves their
physical strength and combats weight loss. Livestock
usually lose weight during the winter / spring and
snow disasters as a result of grass shortages. Howev ̄
erꎬ according to local peopleꎬ those animals that are
fed A􀆰 tanguticus will lose less weight.
Table 2  A􀆰 tanguticus effects on livestock health reported by
pastoral households in Ni and Jiu villages (n= 19)
Medical effects on livestock health
Total number of times
reported in Ni and
Jiu villages
Warms up the animal’s body 19
Improves general health conditions 11
Prevents weight reduction during winter /
spring / snow disasters 9
2􀆰 4  Importance of A􀆰 tanguticus to local pastoralists
A􀆰 tanguticus has long been considered important
by local pastoralists. We compared its importance a ̄
gainst other forages in terms of combating snow disas ̄
ters. Based on our interviews in Ni and Jiu villagesꎬ
14 out of 19 households reported that A􀆰 tanguticus
was equal in importance to planted and purchased
forage crops (64% and 88%ꎬ respectivelyꎬ in Ni and
Jiu villages). No one reports it is more important
than other foragesꎬ and only four out of 19 house ̄
holds considered A􀆰 tanguticus to be less important
than other forages (Table 3).
Table 3  Importance of A􀆰 tanguticus compared with planted
and purchased forages in Ni and Jiu villages
Total report
number
More
important
Equally
important
Less
important
Not
important
19 0 14 4 1
An interesting observation was that every house ̄
hold defined their ownership of A􀆰 tanguticus. A􀆰 tang ̄
uticus was fenced off as private property within the
backyard of each household. This focus on ownership
indirectly reflects the importance of this particular
plant for these communities. Moreoverꎬ this practice
can be traced back prior to the 1950s when forage
plantation was uncommon. While fences were not
used to demarcate the boundaries of the backyardsꎬ
each household’s ownership of A􀆰 tanguticus was still
clearꎬ as this was basedꎬ distallyꎬ on the distance of
the plant’s location to that of a house.
3  Discussions
3􀆰 1   A􀆰 tanguticus: important fodder plant for
sustaining alpine pastoral production systems
Based on our resultsꎬ A􀆰 tanguticus is an impor ̄
tant wild plant resource as supplement livestock feed
in winter. It plays a positive role in preventing live ̄
stock loss in alpine pastoral systems during winter
and early spring. A􀆰 tanguticusꎬ as a fodder plantꎬ
not only assists livestock to combat snow disastersꎬ
but also enhances the survival rate. According to phy ̄
tochemical and pharmaceutical researchesꎬ A􀆰 tanguticus
has multiple medicinal functionsꎬ including relieving
painꎬ anti ̄spasticityꎬ anti ̄inflammationꎬ as analepticꎬ
etc. (Yangꎬ 1991ꎬ Lee et al.ꎬ 2013). These effects
may contribute to livestock healthꎬ especially for those
weaker ones surviving through cold winters.
688                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 37卷
There is evidence that four main alkaloids ex ̄
tracted from A􀆰 tanguticus contribute to its medicinal
effects. These are: anisodamineꎬ scopolamineꎬ ani ̄
sodineꎬ and hyoscyamine (Lee et al.ꎬ 2013). The
curative mechanisms and effects of these four alka ̄
loids have been relatively well studied in relation to
human health. They have similar pharmaceutical
functions affecting the parasympathetic nervous sys ̄
temꎬ but differ in their potencies and efficacies (Lee
et al.ꎬ 2013). Based on their pharmaceutical mech ̄
anisms in relation to human diseasesꎬ these alkaloids
are also used to treat livestock diseases. For exam ̄
pleꎬ anisodamine has been applied in the prevention
of livestock mortality caused by Shiga toxins (Ham ̄
merschmidtꎬ 2001). Scopolamine has been used to
treat livestock diarrheaꎬ and hyoscyamine has been
employed in the treatment of livestock poisoning
(Liꎬ 1993ꎻ Hua and Zhouꎬ 1998).
Three major effects of A􀆰 tanguticus related to
livestock health have been described by local pastora ̄
lists in Bangda rangeland. We suggest that the above ̄
mentioned four alkaloids may contribute to these
effects. Specificallyꎬ the warming up effect on live ̄
stockꎬ described by pastoralistsꎬ may be causally re ̄
lated to these alkaloidsꎬ which regulate body temper ̄
ature through their influence on the autonomic nerve
system. This has been reported in clinical case stud ̄
ies (Liꎬ 1986ꎻ Lee et al.ꎬ 2013). These alkaloids
have also been found to play a role in improving the
general health status of livestock by regulating their
immune systems (Liꎬ 1986ꎻ Liꎬ 1993). These medi ̄
cal findings appear to endorse indigenous knowledge
of pastoral communities in this region regarding the
effects of A􀆰 tanguticus. The third effect of weight re ̄
tention may also be related to the above ̄mentioned
functions.
3􀆰 2   Traditional knowledge of pastoralists on
wise use of local biodiversity: avoiding toxicity of
A􀆰 tanguticus
We found that local communities had a rich re ̄
pository of biological and ecological knowledge re ̄
garding A􀆰 tanguticus. They had developed innovative
uses for this plant as a dietary supplement for live ̄
stock in winter. They effectively avoid the toxicity of
A􀆰 tanguticus by regulating plant harvest time and its
recipientsꎬ which has not been previously reported.
It manifests the deep understanding of local biologi ̄
cal resources by pastoralists.
A􀆰 tanguticus is evidently poisonous. The alka ̄
loids it containsꎬ particularlyꎬ scopolamine and hyo ̄
scyamineꎬ have proven extremely toxic for mammals
(Caligiani et al.ꎬ 2011ꎻ Mulder et al.ꎬ 2014). Be ̄
cause of this concernꎬ European law strictly regu ̄
lates permissible quantities of Datura stramonium seeds
(which have similar alkaloids to those found in
A􀆰 tanguticus) introduced in animal feeds. This quantity
is less than one Datura stramonium seed to a million
crop seeds (Caligiani et al.ꎬ 2011).
The indigenous knowledge revealed by our study
has indicated that the timing of the harvest of this
plant is critical when using it as a dietary supple ̄
ment. Only those materials harvested during the au ̄
tumnꎬ when the parts of the plant aboveground turn
yellowꎬ can be used for this purpose. It has been ex ̄
perimentally proved that the content of these alka ̄
loids in the aboveground part of A􀆰 tanguticus is
highest during the flowering period and lowest during
the withering period ( Zhang and Wangꎬ 2002).
Thusꎬ we postulate that their effect is dosage ̄de ̄
pendentꎬ which has been confirmed by several drug
studies of the Solanaceae family (Jürgenꎬ 1998ꎻ Ev ̄
erett and Gabraꎬ 2014). While high levels of alka ̄
loid content have a fatal impact on livestockꎬ low
levels may enable them to cope in a harsh winter en ̄
vironment. Howeverꎬ Bangda pastoralists proscribe
the use of A􀆰 tanguticus to feed horsesꎬ regardless of
any conditions. The poisonous effect of these alka ̄
loids on horses has also been reported in South Afri ̄
ca (Naudé et al.ꎬ 2005).
3􀆰 3  A sophisticated practice of pastoralists on
management of A􀆰 tanguticus on the Tibetan Plateau
It can be inferred by our studyꎬ that A􀆰 tanguti ̄
cus has been managed by local pastoralists in a be ̄
nign way through defining ownership on this plant.
7886期      FU Yao et al.: Indigenous Knowledge and Use of Anisodus tanguticus in Pastoral Communities of 􀆺       
A􀆰 tanguticusꎬ as private propertyꎬ has been fenced
into each household’s backyards. There is reasona ̄
ble incentive for pastoralists to manage it well. The
abundant distribution of A􀆰 tanguticus around winter
settlements in the Bangda area is an evidence for this
benign management.
In additionꎬ there are some unintentional pasto ̄
ral practices which may contribute to the abundance
of A􀆰 tanguticus around pastoralists’ winter settlements.
Firstꎬ seed germination of A􀆰 tanguticus could be fa ̄
cilitated through livestock trampling. A􀆰 tanguticus
mainly reproduces through seeds (Duan et al.ꎬ 2007)ꎬ
which is a slow process under natural conditions (He
and Jiaꎬ 2009). An experiment carried out by He
and Jia (2009) showed that the germination rate was
considerably improved by seed scarification. After
feedingꎬ leftover seeds of A􀆰 tanguticus that are not
consumed by livestock are dispersed in a household’s
backyard. Livestock pensꎬ used during the winter
(from September to April)ꎬ are also located in the
backyard. Seeds thus have a better chance of germi ̄
nating as a result of mechanical scarification caused
by livestock trampling in the pens. Secondꎬ A􀆰 tang ̄
uticus is in all probability a nitrophilous plant. Such
plants are readily found near settlements where an ̄
imal manure is present in large quantities (Yangꎬ
1991). Winter backyardsꎬ thereforeꎬ provide suffi ̄
cient nutrients for its growth. Thirdꎬ vegetative prop ̄
agation of A􀆰 tanguticus is enhanced by ploughing
carried out in conjunction with forage plantation ac ̄
tivities. During this processꎬ roots of A􀆰 tanguticus
with shoots get broken up and dispersedꎬ leading to
the growth of new plants. For their tissue culture re ̄
searchꎬ He et al. (2011) employed the root ̄shoot
method for propagating A􀆰 tanguticus. Lastꎬ using the
withered aboveground parts of A􀆰 tanguticus for ani ̄
mal feed entails a low degree of adverse impacts on
its population dynamics compared with harvesting its
roots for medicinal use.
3􀆰 4  Important knowledge of Bangda pastoral ̄
ists for local adaptation to climate extremes
Great fluctuation of livestock production is one
of the major problems for the pastoral production sys ̄
tem on the Tibetan plateau. It also influences local
livelihoods significantly. Seasonal and inter ̄annual
variability of grassland primary productions led to
considerable variation of livestock secondary produc ̄
tions. Highly uncertainty of the occurrences of extreme
climate events may cause substantial livestock loss.
In additionꎬ the Tibetan Plateau is experiencing un ̄
precedented climate change. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC) projects that by
2065ꎬ temperatures in this region will increase by
more than 3 ℃ꎬ and the uncertainty of precipitation
and extreme events such as snow disasters will rise
(IPCCꎬ 2013). How to mitigate adverse impacts of
these problems have been the key challenges for
grazing based animal husbandry on the Tibetan plat ̄
eau. The use of A􀆰 tanguticus by Bangda pastoralists
provides a good example of adaptive management by
using local biodiversity and related indigenous know ̄
ledge. It illustrates that indigenous knowledge is one
of the critical factors to sustain local productions sys ̄
tems under climate variabilityꎬ and it is also impor ̄
tant for local adaptation to environmental extremes.
4  Conclusions
Having lived in extremely harsh environmental
conditions for thousands of yearsꎬ Tibetan pastoral ̄
istsꎬ with their profound indigenous knowledgeꎬ have
developed various approaches for adapting to envi ̄
ronmental uncertainties. The knowledge provided by
Bangda pastoralists regarding the use of the widely
known toxic speciesꎬ A􀆰 tanguticusꎬ for safeguarding
livestock health during inclement weather is inspir ̄
ing. It demonstrates the wisdom of converting a poi ̄
sonous item into a medicine by using the right parts
at the right time. Moreoverꎬ it reveals that indige ̄
nous knowledge and local biodiversity can support
the sustainability of local production systems under a
highly variable climateꎬ and it is also vital for local
adaptation to environmental variability. Howeverꎬ the
phytochemical and pharmaceutical mechanisms be ̄
hind this knowledge need further exploration. With
888                                  植 物 分 类 与 资 源 学 报                            第 37卷
the consent of local communitiesꎬ veterinary and
bioprospecting research should therefore be conduc ̄
ted to further explore these.
Acknowledgements: The original map on which Fig􀆰 1 is
based was provided by the government of Yiqing Township
and composed by Ms. Bi Ying ̄Feng. We are very grateful to
the people of Yiqing Township for sharing their invaluable
knowledge with usꎬ as well as for their support and hospitality
during the course of our field research. We also thank Prof.
Lukasz Luczaj and Prof. Huyin Huai for comments and im ̄
provements on the manuscript. Many thanks to the anonymous
reviewers for the insightful comments on the manuscriptꎬ and
Edanz Group Ltd. for English editing assistance.
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