全 文 ：The Truffle and Its Cultivation in France
Sourzat Pierre
?
( Station d′expérimentation Sur La Truffe, 46090 LE MONTAT, France)
Abstract: Truffle production in France reached its peak at the turn of the19th to20th century, benefiting from the over-
population of the countryside and the destruction of European vineyards by Phylloxeraaround 1870 - 1880 . The two World
Warswith their sociological and ecological consequences marked the start of the decline in production which motivated in
turn the efforts to revive it at the start of theseventies . Ecological factors, includingsoil, climateand thequalityof theen-
vironment made it possible to determine criteria for the cultivation of-principally- Tuber melanosporumin calcareous regions
with a Mediterranean climate . Trufflecultivation has evolved since its invention at thebeginning of the19th century; initial-
ly very empirical, it went through a phase of development based on amodel of arboriculture of mycorrhized plants; finally
returning to more ecologically-based concepts at the end of the 20th century . Thechoice of themost appropriatemethod of
truffle cultivation ismainly afunctionof thepressuredueto contamination by other species of Tuber present in the environ-
ment . The prospects of extending truffle cultivation in France depend at the sametime on scientific research, experiments
on cultivation techniques, plantations with grants from local authorities, technical support and training of truffle-growers .
The latter are aware that they hold in their hands an historical , sociological , gastronomic and economic heritage to en-
hance, faced with the initiatives launched in other European countries and theentire world .
Key words : Mycorrhized plants; Tuber melanosporumVitt .; Tuber brumaleVitt .; Trufflearboriculture; Chalk grassland;
Biodiversity
CLC number : S 646 Document Code : A Article ID: 0253 - 2700 ( 2009) Suppl.ⅩⅥ- 072 - 09
1 The historical and geographical context
of the evolution of Black Truffle production
The history of the Truffle shows that it went
through a period of abundance at the turn of the 19th -
20th centuries . According to Chatin, in 1892 theBlack
Truffle harvest in France, covering more than 40
départements, reached a record production of 2 000
tonnes .Three-quartersof this production camefromthe
following départements:
Vaucluse 470 ?tonnes
Basses-Alpes (Alpes de Haute-Provence) 380 ?tonnes
Lot or Quercy 360 ?tonnes
Dr?me in Provence 180 ?tonnes
Dordogne or Périgord 160 ?tonnes
The peak production probably occurred at thestart
of the 20th century in the South-West . Nowadays, in
thebest cases French production reaches around ahun-
dred tonnes ( in the Winter of 1977 - 8 ) , and in the
worst about 10 (Winter 2003 - 4) ; the average is about
30 - 40 tonnes . The main producing départements are
the Vaucluse, the Dr?me, theLot, the Var, the Alpes
de Haute-Provence, the Gard and the Dordogne .
The end of periods of famine from the start of the
19th century on led to conditions of over-population in
the countryside in the middle of the century . Wood-
clearing, favoured by the new Freedom acquired fol-
lowing the French Revolution; as well as the need to
nourish a very large rural population, contributed to
land clearance in many French regions . This created
particularly favourable conditions for Tuber melanospo-
rum: a fungus of open spaces . The destruction of
French and European vineyards by Phylloxera in about
1880 added yet more new, favourable conditions for
truffles . For example, at the moment when Phylloxera
arrived, theLot department had almost 80 , 000 hect-
ares of vineyards, compared to 5000 now . These vine-
yards covered the causses and limestone plateaux . Nu-
云 南 植 物 研 究 2009 , Suppl . ⅩⅥ : 72～80
Acta Botanica Yunnanica
? ?Author for correspondence; E-mail : station. truffe@wanadoo. fr; website: http:??perso.wanadoo. fr?station-truffe?
merous ruined wine-producers, who had often noticed
the formation of natural truffle-grounds in their vine-
yards linked tothepresenceof borderingoaks, replant-
ed their fields with downy oaks ( Quercus pubescens
Willd .) . This reorientation was crowned with success
and many properties on the causses of the Lot and the
Périgord made their fortunes .
The decline started with the First World War,
since during 5 years themaintenance of truffle grounds
was neglected in favour of growing food products . The
rural exodus, coupled with the haemorrhageof the cou-
ntryside population resulting fromtheGreat War, led to
a demographic situation which discouraged the renewal
of truffle plantations . After the Second World War,
radical changes in agricultural methods, which altered
from being purely nutritiveto production-orientedor in-
dustrial, accentuated the decline in production . Pro-
duction methods changed andwith themsocial attitudes
and economic and technical practices . People lost the
habit of planting truffle-producing trees-in particular
because annual production was unreliable because of
unpredictable droughts . Repaying bank loan instal-
ments wasn′t really compatible with the fluctuating in-
come from truffles .
The mechanisation of agricultural work extended
to truffles, whose plantations were considered as truffle
orchards (Fig. 1 ) . Free-range farming disappeared lit-
tle by little on chalk grassland and juniper moors;
woodland undergrowth was invaded by brushwood fol-
lowing the abandonment of traditional practices such as
gathering leaf litter or making faggots to heat bread ov-
ens . The habit of trimmingoaks to feed flocks of sheep
at the end of summer fell into disuse . The landscape
progressively changed, creating environmental condi-
tions inauspicious for the formation of natural truffle-
grounds and changing the dominant position that the
Black Truffle had on open land at the beginning of the
20th century . These combined factors led to a loss of
thepower or‘virulence’of the truffle: a phenomenon
now identified and studied, in particular at the truffle
experimental station at Cahors-Le Montat .
It was only from the start of the seventies on that
the revival of truffle cultivation took place under the
impetus of pioneers such as Sylvain Floirat, Jean
Rebière and Jean-Baptiste Champagnac in the South-
West; Louis Fioc, Louis Signoret and RenéGleyze in
theSouth-East . Jean Grente, Jacques Delmas, Nicole
Poitou and Gérard Chevalier, researchers at the INRA
(National Agronomic Research Institute) took part in
this revival through their scientific work, assisted also
by the Italians scientists . Mycorrhized plants, market-
ed since 1974 , should have encouraged renewed pro-
duction . Unfortunately, in wooded environments they
fell victim to contamination by other fungal species
equally capableof infecting or mycorrhizing the roots of
theseyoung truffle-producingplants . Nowadays it seems
likely that the solution will come from better manage-
ment of truffleenvironments to control this contamination
and favour the potential of Tuber melanosporum .
Fig. 1 Mechanisation of agricultural work in truffle
plantation ( Rocamadour, Lot, France)
2 Résuméof truffle ecology in France
The Black Truffle Tuber melanosporumseeks en-
vironmental conditions suitable for its xero-thermo-cal-
ciphile ecological requirements: that is to say dry ( xe-
ro- ) and hot ( thermo-) Mediterranean climates with
limestone soil (calciphile) .
A knowledge of truffle-bearing soils is important
because truffles are fungi which need calcareous soil
with the correct qualitiesof drainage, aeration and bio-
logical activity ( earthworms, insects etc) . Classical
soil analysis is an essential tool for understanding these
soils, which must be completed by an in-depth study,
usually carried out in a pedological trench (Fig. 2 ) .
37增刊ⅩⅥ Sourzat Pierre: TheTruffleand Its Cultivation in France
Fig. 2 Typical truffle producing soil (Lacave, Lot, France)
The average agronomic qualities of a truffle-bear-
ing soil aregenerally as follows:
● Balanced texture: clay, silt and sand in equal pro-
portions (sandy soils are more propitious than non-
stony clayey ones) .
● Limestone: 1% to 70%
● Exchangeable calcium: 0 . 6% to 1% , 6%
● Water pH: 7 . 8 to 8 .3
● *Organic matter: 3% to 6% on average . In the
South-East and on sandy soil the content may be
lower; in the South-West, higher on clayey soil .
● ?C?N ( defines the evolution of the organic matter) :
8 to 12 in general .
● Nitrogen (N) : 1‰ to 3‰
● Total phosphorus: 1‰ to 3‰ ( thevalueof assimi-
lable phosphorus in calcareous soil is not agood in-
dicator for truffles) .
● Assimilable potassium (K2 O) : 0 . 1‰ to 0 .3‰
● Assimilable magnesium (MgO) : 0 . 1‰ to 0 .5‰
Calcareous geological formations of various Epochs
produced the truffle-bearing soils found in France .
Amongst these formations, the calcareous of the Sec-
ondary Era have an important place, particularly those
of the Jurassic and Cretaceous Epochs . Excellent truf-
fle-bearing soils exist also on the Tertiary ( Oligocene
and Eocene) and Quaternary alluvia . The nature of
these sediments governs that of the soil .
Truffle-producing soils are classified into three
principal pedological types: rendzinas, brown calcare-
ous soils and brown calcic soils . According to the new
classification on which the AFES ( French Soil Study
Association) is working, the rendzinas are named
‘Rendosols’ (‘Rendisols’for the calcic ones) ; the
brown calcareous soils are‘Calcosols’and brown cal-
cic soils‘Calcisols’. Other types are also truffle-pro-
ducing:‘lithosols’① and‘colluviosols’② , sitesof nat-
ural truffle-grounds with no real possibility of cultiva-
tion with modern tools; as well as‘fluviosols’③ , espe-
cially the length of the Rhone valley .
The climate is also adecisive factor for trufflepro-
duction which needs to be evaluated according the dis-
tribution of its rainfall and temperaturevariationsduring
the truffle′s growth cycle . Tuber melanosporum′s cli-
matic requirements can be summarised by the following
four points:
● ?relatively damp and warm Springs with no late
frosts, so as to encourage the activation of the my-
celiumand thenaissanceof truffles
● ?hot Summers punctuated with rainstorms which en-
suregood development of the truffles
● ?generally damp Autumns without early frosts which
destroy the truffles
● ?Winters without heavy frosts lasting several days,
which might destroy the truffles, and moderate
rainfall so as to ensure harvesting in correct soil
conditions .
The altitudeof south-west France′s trufflegrounds
is generally between 100 and 400 metres . In theSouth-
East theMediterranean climate allows the establishment
of truffle-grounds above this height . In the Hautes-Alp-
es, natural truffle-grounds are present up to 1500 me-
tres on well-oriented sites ( at the lower limit of the
larch tree-line) , while on the Larzac plateau ( in the
Aveyron) some exist at 800 metres in good sunny con-
ditions .
An awareness of the whole environment completes
that of the soil and climate on a regional scale . The
47 云 南 植 物 研 究 增刊ⅩⅥ
①
②
③ ?Soils on recent fluvial alluvium .
Soils on colluvium generally resulting from earth sliding down a
slope . ?
Very superficial soils limited in depth by themother rock situat-
ed at 10 cm or less from the surface .
types of vegetation, which provide information on both
the soil and the climate allow us to synthesize a pic-
ture . To put it simply: the presence of chestnuts or
bell heather on a parcel lets us suppose that it has an
acid soil unsuitable for black truffles .
3 Truffle Cultivation
When we speak of truffle cultivation in France,
we mean principally growing the Black Truffle, Tuber
melanosporum, which was first devised at the start of
the 19th century whenobservant country-dwellers in the
South-West and South-East decided to sow acorns or
plant oaks with this in mind . The cultivation of Bour-
gognetruffles, Tuber uncinatum, has recently taken off
in the North-East of the country, since the eighties .
Amongst other specieswhich are cultivated moreor less
privately, there is the White Summer Truffle, Tuber
aestivum, the Winter truffle Tuber brumale, and the
mesenteric truffle, Tuber mesentericum ( Fig. 3 ) . Nu-
merous truffle species are spontaneously present and
cause problems in terms of contaminating plantations .
The species the most feared on truffle cultivation land
are Tuber brumale and Tuber aestivum-even if some
growers tend to put them forward .
Fig. 3 1 . Tuber melanosporum Vitt .; 2 . Tuber uncinatumCh .; 3 . Tuber aestivumVitt .; 4 . Tuber mesentericum Vitt .; 5 . Tuber brumale Vitt .
We candistinguish three techniques for cultivating
Tuber melanosporum, eachwith their variations, which
have different results dependingon theenvironment and
changing times . Truffle growers do not all agreeon the
best method to use; and additionally each one intro-
duces his own nuances to his preferred approach ac-
cordingto hissoil , his climate-and above all whether or
not there is an existing family tradition of truffle culti-
vation .
The main methods are:
1 . the traditional method practiced before the in-
troduction of mycorrhized plants-whosefollowers arebe-
coming less and less numerous .
2 . the method of truffle arboriculture ( known as
‘Pallier’) , conceived from simple modern principles
since the marketing of mycorrhized plants started in
1974 .
3 . the chalk grassland or lawn ecosystem method
( named after‘Tanguy’) from the nineties onwards,
based on the functioning of natural trufflegrounds .
3 . 1 The traditional method
The traditional method, invented in France two
centuries ago, includes different practices which taken
together are relatively consistent (Fig. 4 ) . Even if now-
adays its efficacy leaves itsvalue debatable, this highly
empirical method was behind the production of huge
quantities of truffles at the end of the 19th and the be-
ginning of the 20th centuries .
57增刊ⅩⅥ Sourzat Pierre: TheTruffleand Its Cultivation in France
Fig. 4 Plantation with traditional method (Cremps, Lot, France)
Characteristics of the traditional method:
● ?Production of plants from seeds ( acorns) selected
fromgood truffle-grounds ( truffle-bearing oaks) ,
● planting in a former vineyard ( in the South-West) ,
a lavender field ( in the South-East) or a parcel of
ploughed landwhich it is difficult to cultivate profitably,
● continual workingof the soil , adjusted to the ageof
the plants, from their planting until they start to
produce; although certain truffle growers hoe young
trees-and even productive adult trees-manually,
● no irrigation, but sometimes covering of good burnt
areas with cut branches before really hot spells to
limit evaporation,
● little or no tree pruning .
Current results of this“cultivation of trees des-
tined to produce truffles”:
● 9production starting increasingly later ( 15 to 25
years) , as it is necessary to await the haphazard
natural inoculation by Tuber melanosporum of the
trees planted,
● ?very variableyields, with the proportion of produc-
tive trees varying fromzero to more than half on the
same parcel: inold centresof productionwhereTu-
ber melanosporumis still firmly implanted ( Richer-
ences and Aups) yields usingthismethod rival those
of the others; but where Tuber brumale has pro-
gressed the results are mediocreor null ,
● $in general , a high percentage of sterile trees be-
cause these aremycorrhized or contaminated by fun-
gi other than truffles .
The traditional method was the foundation of truf-
fle cultivation in the 19th century . But now, the situ-
ation has changed: ecologically ( overgrowth of the en-
vironment) and socio-economically ( less labour in the
countryside, and industrial agriculture as opposed to
essential food production) . Plantations usingthismeth-
od can still be seen in former producing regions, but
fewer and fewer people practise it as the useof mycor-
rhized plants becomes more widespread . However it
should be noted that the mycorrhized plant was invent-
ed specifically to compensate for thepoor results of the
traditional method; that is to say a lack of inoculumin
the soilsor aparallel loss of potential of Tuber melano-
sporum . It is likely that this negative situation hadn′t
yet appeared in the fifties and sixties and the traditional
method continued to work successfully; except of
course in new regions where introducing mycorrhized
plants is necessary to introduce the inoculum .
3.2 Arboriculture for truffles (the‘Pallier’method)
This method wasdeveloped at thestartof theseven-
ties, following themarketingof mycorrhized plants“Agri-
Truffe”in the winter of 1974 - 5) under a licence INRA-
ANVAR (Fig.5) . Jean Rebière① had already started to
outline the method in the Périgord in the sixties-without
mycorrhized plants . Raymond Pallier tried out and popu-
larized this type of truffle cultivation at Sainte-Foy-de-
Longas in the Périgord during almost 30 years .
Fig. 5 Arboriculture with truffle plantation
(Lalbenque, Lot, France)
67 云 南 植 物 研 究 增刊ⅩⅥ
① ?Jean Rebièrepublished thefirst edition of“The Périgord Truffle”
in 1967, published by Fanlac at Périgueux .
The method is practised everywhere in France, in Eu-
rope and even further afield .
Characteristics of themethod:
● ?planting tested trees mycorrhized with Tuber mela-
nosporumon a suitable calcareous soil .
● ?uninterrupted workingof the soil (by cultivator, spring-
tined cultivator or spike harrow) adapted to the age of
theplants, fromplantinguntil the end of production .
● %irrigation of truffle-bearing trees mainly in August
and above all during the truffle production period
(Fig. 6) .
● ?harder and harder tree-pruning as growth is stimu-
lated by irrigating theplantation, and if theplanting
density is high (400 to 800 plants per hectare) .
● calcareous soil enrichment to control competition by
Tuber brumale and tests withorganic fertilisers such
as‘Fructitruf’.
● ?use of chemical weed-killers for clearing ( glypho-
sate) , removal of suckers, getting rid of parasites
(slugs, Leiodes beetles etc) .
Fig. 6 Irrigation in truffle plantation
Results of the method:
● >early production, especially with hazelnut trees
whose production starts in the 4thyear,
● +yields which can reasonably be expected to vary
from 15 to 30 kilos per hectare after between 15
and 20 years,
● 6problems of contamination particularly by Tuber
brumale in the South-West and increasingly in the
South-East,
● ,long periods of labour, above all for tree-pruning
which sometimes extends to lopping of branches .
3 . 3 Truffle cultivation in chalk grassland or lawn
ecosystem ( the‘Tanguy’method)
It was after the 1993 - 4 truffle season that this
method was identified and standardized-almost 20 years
after thebeginnings of the‘Pallier’method . The person
after whomthe method was named, Marcel Tanguy , had
purchased a small property in the Tarn-et-Garonne on
which there was a roughly maintained hazelnut plantation
whose trees started to produce late . The proprietor spoke
widely about the success of this plantation (Fig.7) .
Fig. 7 Truffle plantation in chalk grassland
(Lascabanes, Lot, France)
Truffle plantations using the‘ Tanguy’method
which have attracted attention since 1994 are situated
in the Vaucluse ( at Apt) , le Lot ( at Miers) , le
Périgord ( at Sainte-Alvère, Pézuls, and Saint-Pantaly
d′Excideuil ) and of course in the Tarn et Garonne (at
Puygaillard) . Curiously, thesehighly productiveplant-
ations often cover less than a hectare ( between 1000
and 6000 squaremeters for thosementioned) . It′s very
likely that theowners of such high-performance planta-
tions prefer to remain behind the scenes, even if some
new producers ( for example at Beauvais-sur-Matha in
the Charente Maritime) are willing to discuss their
method and its results (Fig. 8) .
Characteristics of themethod:
● ?planting trees guaranteed to be mycorrhized with
Tuber melanosporumtruffles in soil either ploughed
or grass-covered,
● ?working thesoil or clearing around theyoung trees with
77增刊ⅩⅥ Sourzat Pierre: TheTruffleand Its Cultivation in France
chemical weed-killers during the first two years to en-
courage the reinvigorationof thetruffle-bearing plant,
● !dropping the soil cultivation and chemical clearing
fromthe 2nd or 3rd year onwards to encourage the
establishment of the fungus and at the same timesl-
owing down (or inhibiting) thegrowthof themycor-
rhized trees,
● ?maintenanceof the plantation bymowing thevegeta-
tion based on natural grasses (sometimes sown) ,
● ?cultivating the soil infrequently or when production
has been in effect for several years ( thiswork prob-
ably acts to encourage the growth of new, short ro-
ots likely to carry mycorrhiza) ,
● ?watering the truffletrees duringthe first two years to
reinvigorate them, then when production has start-
ed , restarting watering with a fine spray ( micro-
sprinkling) on good burnt areas,
● possiblepruningof thetrees at thestart to obtain an
erect shape, stopped and then restarted when the
truffle bearing space starts to form,
● (no soil enrichment or fertiliser in particular, nor
chemical clearance .
Fig. 8 Truffle plantation in chalk grassland
( Castelnau-Montmiral , Tarn, France)
The results of themethod:
● *production starting later than with the‘ Pallier’
method, that is towards 10 to 12 years, due to
competition fromtheother plants in the environment
with thegrowth of the trees,
● %little or no contamination by other fungi or species
of Tuber,
● ?average yields per tree of 1 kilo, and sometimes
more,
● ?harvesting on the surface, sensitive to frost and
raiding,
● ?labour time less than for the‘Pallier’method,
● ?unknown longevity of production, as this model for
truffle cultivation has only recently been used .
3 . 4 General thoughts on the choice of method
The results obtained in France and Europe-and
above all in countries where there are no species of
truffle naturally present in the environment, lead us to
consider the justification for using each method; in
particular thoseof truffle arboriculture and chalk grass-
land . In Australia, where Tuber brumale as well as all
other species of Tuber other than melanosporumis ab-
sent, the common hazelnut seems to maintain a perpet-
ual liaison with Tuber melanosporum ( Manjimup,
Western Australia) . In France, the same hazelnut tree
has a strong affinity with Tuber brumale, which cont-
aminates it in numerous regions despite a high level of
mycorrhization of plants checked by the INRA and the
CTIFL ( CentreTechnique Interprofessionnel des Fruits
et Légumes-Inter-professional Technical Centre for
Fruits andvegetables) . On the other hand the Downy
oak ( Quercus pubescens Willd .) and Green oak
( Quercus ilexL .) arespecies perfectly adapted to Tu-
ber melanosporumbetween whomaffinity is traditionally
good . This relationship is confirmed in Australia and
New Zealand .
The parallel between the‘ Tanguy’method of
truffle cultivation in chalk grassland and the workings
of natural trufflegrounds in the Southof France is easy
to demonstrate . Natural trufflegrounds develop inopen
spaces or clearings, especially in environments result-
ing from the neglect of cultivated land, when these
spaces become wasteland reach ten to fifteen years of
age ( Fig. 9 ) . Such natural truffle grounds correspond
to a particular state or type of vegetation (Mesobromi-
um, Xerobromium etc) during the evolution of the
wasteland towards its final form (woodland) in calcare-
ous zones . They display the characteristics of biodiver-
sity that we attempt to develop in the most efficient
grassy plantations .
87 云 南 植 物 研 究 增刊ⅩⅥ
To resume, truffle arboriculture appears to give
noteworthy results in the absence of pressure due to
contamination; whereas truffle cultivation in chalk
grassland allows us to limit such contamination . Every-
thing seems to show that in France, the choice of a
method should begoverned by the principle of precau-
tion . It′s a question of choosing the route which is
likely to present the fewest risks; even if one can as-
sume that these risks are very low in certain open or
lightly-wooded landscapes .
Fig. 9 Natural truffle ground or natural“truffière”
(Le Montat, Lot, France)
Precautionary technical procedures, faced with
contamination bymycorrhizal fungi present in the envir-
onment, include three phases .
● Stage1: consists of assuring thebest possible re-es-
tablishment of the plant mycorrhized with Tuber
melanosporumduring the first year following plant-
ing, and even the second .
● ?Stage 2: not encouraging the growth of the mycor-
rhized plant, inorder to avoid contamination by va-
rious fungi: creationof thenatural environment pre-
ferredby the truffle is sought after duringthe forma-
tion of burnt areas .
● #Stage 3: once the fructification of the fungus has
been triggered, it′s amatter of improving thequan-
tity and quality of the production whilst maintaining
its durability .
Following these stages it is possible to foresee ty-
ing up the cycle of truffle production with two further
stages:
● ?Stage4: theold plantation is renovatedso as togive
a second life to the production by opening up the
environment .
● ?Stage 5: theold trufflewood is ripped up to provide
a fresh base to the truffle plantation .
4 Future perspectives
Efforts in France to increase truffleproduction are
directed towardsplantations, research and experimenta-
tion, training truffle producers and promotion and pub-
licizationof the Black Truffle . As an example, in the
South-West the general ( County) Council of the Lot
and the Regional Council of Midi-Pyrenees give grants
for plantations as well as research and experimentation,
supported also by the VINIFHLOR (Office National In-
terprofessionnel des Fruits, des Legumes, des Vins et
de l′Horticulture-National Inter-professional Office for
Fruits, Vegetables, Wine and Horticulture) , theEuro-
pean Community and the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries . If we look further afield towards Spain and
Italy, we realise that truffle production in the south of
those countries is not subjected to contamination by
Tuber brumale, whichgoes inhand with a lower poten-
tial for Tuber melanosporum .
French truffle producers are vigilant concerning
developments in the truffle′s reputation and marketing
in Europe, particularly with respect to agri-tourism .
Spanish producers seek to promote their truffles by cre-
ating a specific gastronomic interest which did not pre-
viously exist: black truffles were mainly exported to
France . In Italy, theprecious Piedmont truffle ( Tuber
magnatum) is used to promote cuisine related to pasta
and wine; but equally to tourism, luxury and Art . The
Hungarians are increasingly interested in Tuber uncina-
tum ( an autumnal ecotype of Tuber aestivum) , as is
the case in Austria, England, Denmark and Sweden .
Scientists in Nordic countries accumulate references to
their local potential and experiment principally with
cultivating Tuber uncinatum . They have no inhibitions
about truffle cultivation and consider cultivating other
species such as Tuber borchii or Choiromyces venosus .
Fromacultural point of view, theNordics are confident
in the interest that truffles will raise in a population
97增刊ⅩⅥ Sourzat Pierre: TheTruffleand Its Cultivation in France
open to any exotic gastronomy . Truffles sharewith cav-
iar their colour, delicacy and preciousness, raising
them-according to theirs chefs trained in France-to the
summit of excellent dishes . From an economic point of
view, the stakes seemrealistic and theNordics havean
entrepreneurial spirit .
The same phenomenon can be observed in the
southern hemisphere . In New Zealand,‘gourmet tour-
ism’has developed around truffles, wine, rafting and
whale-watching ! The Australians cultivate top-quality
products which have been part of French culture for a
very long time, in particular truffles and wine . Chili
and Argentina are represented at conferences centredon
truffles and their cultivation . China is also interested in
cultivating its own species Tuber indicum . All these
factors arenot without significance for the futureof truf-
fle cultivation in France . Good sense and prudence di-
rect the French to appreciate the quality of their land,
their culture and their traditions: that is to say the ele-
ments whichgive an additional inimitable and irreplace-
ablevalue to the Black Truffle . Typical truffle markets
Fig. 10 Typical truffle market ( Lalbenque, Lot, France)
and gastronomic fairs which associate several local
products with a district or regional identity, all play
their part in an composite process of economic promo-
tion (Fig. 10) . Folklore probably has its part to play as
well-beyond the controversies that it sometimes arouses .
5 Elements of bibliography
Modern books and publications
Call ?ot G . et coll ., 1999 . La truffe, la terre, la vie-Editions INRA
Delm ?as J , 1976 . La truffe et sa culture, Etude n°60-S . E . I .
Oliv ?ier JM, Savignac JCh, Sourzat P, 1997 , 2002 . Truffe et Trufficul-
ture-Editions FANLAC , Périgueux
Reyn ?a Santiago et coll ., 2007 . Truficultura . Fundamentos y téchnicas-
Mundi Prensa
Riou ?sset L . et G, Chevalier G, Bardet MC, 2001 . Truffes d′Europe et
de Chine-Ed . Ctifl et INRA
Rica ?rd JM , 2003 . La truffe, guide technique-Ed . Ctifl
Sour ?zat P , Kulifaj M, Montant C , January 1993 . Résultats techniques sur
la trufficultureàpartir d′expérimentations conduites dans le Lot entre
1985 et 1992-Station d′Expérimentations sur laTruffe?GIS Truffe, LE
MONTAT
Sour ?zat P . et coll ., January 2001 . Résultats techniques d′
expérimentationsà l′usage pratique des trufficulteurs-Lycée professi-
onnel agricole de Cahors-Le Montat
Sour ?zat P , juillet 1989 , 1995 , 2002 . Guide pratique de trufficulture .
Station d′expérimentation sur la truffe, L . P . A ., 46090 LE MON-
TAT
Sour ?zat P . et coll . 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2005 , 2006 .
Compterendus des actions d′expérimentation sur la truffe ( selon le
programme validé par l′ONIFLHOR et la Région Midi- Pyrénées ) -
Station d′expérimentation sur la truffe, L . P . A ., 46090 LE MON-
TAT
Sour ?zat P . et coll ., 2004 . Questions d′écologie appliquéesàla trufficul-
ture-Station d′expérimentation sur la truffe, L . P . A ., 46090 LE
MONTAT
Old books
De B ?osredon A, 1887 . Manuel du Trufficulteur-Laporte, Périgueux
Chat ?in A , 1869 , 1892 . La Truffe-Paris, Baillère
Doct ?eur Pradel L , 1914 . Manuel de Trufficulture- Paris, Baillère
08 云 南 植 物 研 究 增刊ⅩⅥ