全 文 ：第 15 卷 第 5 期
Vol. 15 No. 5
草 地 学 报
ACTA AGRESTIA SINICA
2007 年 9 月
Sep. 2007
文章编号: 1007-0435( 2007) 05-0491-09
Ecological Costs by Livestock Grazing and Wildlife
Conservation Strategies in Hulunbeir
Grassland, Northern Inner Mongolia
SHI Kun
( College of Nature Conservat ion, Beijin g Forest ry U nivers ity, Bei jing 100083, China)
Abstract: A nomadic system has been changed to a settled gr azing system due to t he increase in human and livestock population
and var ious so cial changes in H ulunbeir g rassland, nor thern Inner Mongolia during the last decades. A s a r esult, veg etation a-
round settled villages was heavily destro yed by intensive stocking practices, and many nativ e plants nea r the v illag es were re-
placed by invading ones w ith high g razing tolerance. Vegetation degr adation and environmental stress caused declines in species
richness and abundance of birds and changes in species composition of bir d communities in g razing and mow ing g rasslands, and
the natural bir d community could only be found in the unused part of the g rassland where became an idea l wildlife in dissociation
from the impacts o f r apid incr ease in human and livestock populations in the reg ion. Unfortunately , the precious w ildlife habit at
has been g radua lly disappearing w ith the advancement o f gr assland privatization and the expansion of human activ ities. It w as
pr oposed that establishing g rassland reser ves in t his ar ea w ould be the most effect ive way to pro tect g rassland ecosy st ems, and
to r ea lize the harmonious coexist ence o f human and w ildlife. The promo tion of ecotour ism may also be appropr iate in this area.
Key words: Grassland, L iv esto ck g razing, Eco lo gical cost, Conserv ation str ateg y
内蒙古北部呼伦贝尔草原放牧的生态代价
与野生动物保护战略
时 坤
(北京林业大学自然保护区学院, 北京 100083)
摘要: 在过去几十年中, 由于人口和牲畜数量的增加以及各种社会变化的影响, 内蒙古北部草原传统的游牧方式逐步被定居
放牧所取代。这种放牧体系的根本性变化的结果是,定居放牧村落周围的过度放牧现象日趋严重, 植被严重毁坏;同时,由于
放牧抗性较强的植物的侵入,许多原生植物已经被这些外来种所取代。这种植被退化和环境干扰造成了放牧草原和采草草
原鸟类多样性和种群数量的减少以及群落结构的改变; 自然鸟类群落只存在于未被利用的天然草原中, 在该地区人口与牲畜
数量快速增加的社会背景下,这类草原提供了良好的野生动物栖息地。然而,这些重要的野生动物栖息地正随着草原私有化
和人类活动区的不断扩大而逐渐消失。论文论述了该地区建立草原自然保护区以及促进生态旅游建设,有效保护草原生态
系统,实现人类与野生动物的和谐共存的必要性和实施办法。
关键词: 草原; 放牧; 生态代价; 保护战略
中图分类号: S812; S863 文献标识码: A
Introduction
Livesto ck grazing af fects g rassland ecosystem
in both direct and indirect w ays. Vegetation pro-
duct ivity decr eased direct ly as a result o f fo rag ing
by livestock, w hile plant grow th w as indir ect ly af-
fected by soil compact ion due to the t rampling of
收稿日期: 2007-01-16; 修回日期: 2007-05-28
基金项目: 1998- 1999年度 TOYOT A 财团研究助成金支持项目
作者简介: 时坤( 1960-) ,男,研究员,研究方向为保护生物学、动物生态学与草原动物管理, E-mail: kun shi@ bjfu. edu. cn
草 地 学 报 第 15卷
livestock [ 1] . This led to a det rimental cycle because
decreases in the standing crops of vegetat ion fo rced
an increase in the number o f steps taken by live-
stock to foraging, w hich caused further har dening
of so il and thus prevented vegetat ion r eproduct ion
by reducing underground osmosis of rainfall and
increasing sur face evaporation[ 2] . Therefor e, in
grazing grasslands, livestock are the keystone spe-
cies to determine the survival o r ex t inct ion o f
plants
[ 3]
. However, the impact of gr azing is not
ending w ith vegetat ion only and also spreads over
other or ganisms in grassland. Many ecolog ists
have indicated the ecolog ical costs of livestock
grazing f rom var ious aspects, including lo ss o f
biodiversity[ 4, 5] , decline of populat ion densit ies o f
various tax a[ 6~ 9] , dest ruct ion of ecosystem func-
t ion
[ 10]
, and changes in community or ganiza-
t ion [ 11] .
How ever, nomadism w as a t radit ional system
of livestock g razing in H ulunbeir gr assland, nor th-
ern Inner M ongo lia, as w ell as the other parts o f
the Mongolian g rasslands. The nomadic system
w as developed w ith adaptat ions to cool, ar id grass-
lands w ith poo r product iv ity and its sustainability
has enabled the coex istence betw een the nomadic
society and g rassland eco system [ 12~ 14] . How ever,
the immigrat ion of large quant it ies of people fr om
the outside of the g rassland since 1960s has re-
mar kably increased the quant it ies of liv estock and
populat ion. Especially, since 1980s, the rapid de-
velopment of an external economy caused the chan-
ges of this g rassland ecosystem, including decline
and ext inct ion of w ildlife species, ret rog ression,
and desert ificat ion of grasslands
[ 15, 16]
. T he t rad-i
t ional nomadic system has been changed into a set-
t led gr azing system during last decades due to the
remarkable increases in the populat ions of humans
and liv esto ck accompanied by various social chan-
ges in Hulunbeir grassland, nor thern Inner Mon-
golia[ 17] . Shi et al . [ 18] suggested that the ret rog res-
sion of g rassland vegetation surrounding villages
w as caused by over stocking and the species rich-
ness, plant height , and coverage of vegetation de-
creased under the pressure o f fr equent and inten-
sive g razing on the grasslands near by. Grazing dis-
tur bance and vegetat ion degr adation had an adver se
impact on bird habitats, result ing in the decrease
of bir d species r ichness and abundance as w ell as
the unbalance of bir d community st ructur e[ 19, 20] .
In o rder to deter grassland deg radat ion, it is
t ime to change the intensive grazing system in
norther n Inner M ongolia, the last g rassland area
covered w ith natur al and sem-i natural vegetat ion in
Inner M ongo lia. Measures must be taken to r ealize
the coex istence of w ildlife and local people in a dis-
tur bed g rassland eco system , and any at tempt to
conserve the ecosy stem in this reg ion could not
succeed w ithout the instr uctions of appropriate
str ategies.
Collapse of nomadic system caused by various socio-
logical changes
Devastat ion of arid land has been caused by
human colonizat ion
[ 21]
. In the nomadic society of
norther n Inner M ongolia, the colonization and set-
t lement policy w as enacted in the 1960s, and it has
promo ted an increase in human and livestock popu-
lat ions and a drast ically change in lifestyle f rom
nomadism to sett lement. Since then, the set t led
g razing has resulted in widespr ead over grazing a-
round new ly constr ucted villages. T he intr oduct ion
of market economy fur ther st imulated the grow th
of liv estock g razing in Hulunbeir g rassland[ 22] . It
is natural that geolog ical accessibility to ur ban dis-
tricts may w or k as ano ther facto r o f developing
livesto ck farming . A ccording to Shi and M aruy-
ama[ 17] , the liv estock farming of Holobo, a village
in eastern Hulunbeir, has developed faster than
Kerlun, a village in western Hulunbeir, because of
easy access of Ho lobo to tw o cities, N antun and
Hailar.
Further, the coal mining indust ry and con-
st ruct ion o f a pow er plant at Yim in near by Holo-
bo[ 23] may also contribute to the gr ow th of live-
stock farm ing there. Compared w ith Holobo , on
the other hand, access to urban areas from Kerlun
is rest ricted, result ing in lim ited t raf fic. T ho se
confining social condit ions likely have delayed the
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第 5期 时坤:内蒙古北部呼伦贝尔草原放牧的生态代价与野生动物保护战略
grow th o f set t led livestock farming in Kerlun.
Likewise, the effect o f accessibility to urban
dist ricts may be seen in dif ference in number o f
ho rses raised betw een both ar eas; in Ho lobo w ith
easy access to big cit ies, Nantun and Hailar, w el-l
developed transportat ion system , such as vehicle
roads and w ide spread cars, have been taking place
of horses as a tr aditional t ransportation means ear-
l ier than in Kerlun w ith hard access to urban dis-
tricts.
Imanishi[ 12] and Umesao[ 1 3] have regarded
nomadism as a sustainable use of the land that ad-
justs human society to nature. T his rotat iv e graz-
ing sy stem has been evaluated to be highly sustain-
able also in No rth Amer ica[ 1] . An important prem-
ise for the nomadism is to never exceed the car ry-
ing capacity of the gr assland. Ro tat ional system
which incorporates grazing at dif fer ent t imes of the
year , concurrent ly w ith varying sto cking rates, ar e
likely to be the most f lexible system of manage-
ment , but this method is unlikely to be pract icable
unless a large area o f g rassland is available and it is
incorporated into some kind farm sy stem[ 24] . This
premise, how ever, has been abandoned by new so-
cial and economic systems adopted since the 1960s,
especially since 1980s w hen the Chinese social sy s-
tem was innovated tow ard int roducing a marked e-
conomic system. It is diff icult to perform the ro ta-
t ional system in this area, because a r apidly incr ea-
ses in both populat ions of human being and live-
stock. This change has not been rest ricted to the
Hul lender grassland but w idespread thr oughout
Inner M ongolia; nomadism has disappeared in
most areas and desert if icat ion caused from w ide-
spr ead devastat ion of g rasslands by overgr azing is
far- reaching[ 25] .
How ever, this prog ress has been lo cally dif-
ferent due to natural and social condit ions such as
those stated above; the t radit ional nomadism a-l
most completely disappeared in H olobo but part ly
remained in Kerlun [ 17] . The soils, v eg etat ion, and
vertebrate communities o f g rassland eco sy stems
have probably been af fected due to the ex tensiv e
changes in g razing methods, as stated by Shi et
al . [ 18~ 20] and Onoder a et al . [ 26] .
In Hulunbeir grassland w ith excessive live-
stock and human, a return of liv estock farm ing to
the t radit ional nomadic phase in order to realize a
sustainable condit ion is likely impossible. The pro-
port ion o f gr azing land for nomadism has rapidly
decreased, and contrarily, mow ing land has rapidly
increased. Remaining nomads have concentrated
into villages and the vicinity , and star ted to set t le
in villag es. Thus, nomadism and nomads have a-l
ready disappeared f rom Ho lobo . In the near fu-
tur e, no nomads w ill be found in the Hulunbeir
g rassland. Thus, the current situat ion of the
g rassland society and the gr assland use are far dif-
ferent f rom the past w hen the w hole g rassland w as
covered by t radit ional nomadism .
T he set t lement po licy evident ly has affected
the increment of family size and children due to in-
cr easing the demand of labor force for raising live-
stock, w hile urbanizat ion in lifesty le might de-
cr ease family size and children. The urbanizat ion
and reducibility of human populat ion prom inently
have advanced in Holobo earlier than in Kerlun.
L ikew ise, similar phenomena w ere found in stock-
men s jobs: non-stocking people w ho lived in Ho-
lobo likely have had a chance to f ind jobs and bus-i
ness in N antun and Hailar, instead o f livestocking.
T his may be r egar ded to be one of the currents of
super fluous laborers f rom the rural to ur ban com-
munit ies, depending on recent development o f the
market economy that has been preceded in south-
ern China[ 27] .
Impacts of livestock grazing on vegetation and bird
communities
In Inner M ongo lia, it w as considered that set-
t led grazing caused a series changes in org anism
and their environment including its disturbance on
vegetat ion and bird communit ies near villa-
ges[ 18, 28] . In Nantun area, many nat ive plant spe-
cies near v il lag es, such as Festuca ov ina L. , Ar te-
misia spp. , and A l l ium spp. disappeared and w ere
replaced by only a few plant species w hich became
dominant , such as P lantago dep r essa Willd. , Po-
493
草 地 学 报 第 15卷
tent il la spp. , and Chenopodium album L. [ 18] . Es-
pecially, the occurr ence o f P. dep r essa near villa-
ges indicated so il compact ion by over- trampling o f
livestock. A lthough Ch. album, as an indicator
species of soil richness[ 29] , w as also found near vi-l
lag es, it w as probably a result of the soil near the
village being fert ilized by an abundant excr et ion o f
urine and feces by liv esto ck. Grazing pressure,
w hich caused deg radation of plant communit ies,
w as least intensive in mow ing lands, follow ed by
nomadic lands, and f inally g razing lands w her e
pressure w as gr eat . Dominant species in natural
grasslands changed from the S tipa spp. -Leymus
chinensi s ( T rin. ) Tzv el. -Cleistog enes squar rosa
( T rin. ) Keng community , to the L . chinensi s-
Car ex dur iuscula C. A. Mey. -Cl . squar rosa
community in mow ing gr assland where human ac-
t ivit ies w ere perm itted af ter August of each year,
and changed to the L. chinensi s-C. dur iuscula
community in nomadic grassland. In the set t led
grassland, w here overg razing w as most intense,
vegetat ion changed to the C. duriuscula-Potent il-
la spp. -A r tem isia f rigida Willd. Community [ 18] .
Those changes indicate that the tal l plants w er e
most af fected by the increase of landuse intensity
in the different types of g rassland, because their
grow th condit ions became inadequate w hen soil be-
comes hard by g razing and mow ing and the soil
compact ion obst ructed moisture imbibing of the
tall plants that r equire lar ge amounts of moisture.
Reduct ion of tall plants of fered a competit ive op-
portunity to short plants like A . f rigida, w hose
moisture demands w ere low . In addition, the
grow th condit ions of such short plant species w er e
impr oved due to increases in amount of penet rable
light[ 29, 30] .
Changes in the st ructure and biomass of such
plant communit ies resulted in the changes in the
composit ion of bird communit ies. In N antun, tw o
species, A laud a ar vensis and Ember iz a aur eolas ,
w ere dom inant in mow ing grasslands, how ever on-
ly A . ar vensis was dominant in nomadic grass-
lands. In set tled g rasslands, species w ere depend-
ent on human st ructures such as H ir undo r usti ca
and Passer montanus became the sub-dominant
species
[ 19]
.
T hus, liv esto ck gr azing caused a reduction in
productiv e capacity and an overall simplif ication of
bird communit ies both indirect ly by reducing vege-
tation biomass and causing changes in vegetat ion
str uctures, and direct ly by liv estock g razing dis-
tur bance. This w as the main reason that natural
bird communities disappeared completely from live-
stock gr azing grasslands. A s a result of overg-
razing around v il lag es and corr esponding habitat
distur bance, the species of H . r ust ica and P.
montanus, w hich w ere village dependent
birds [ 30~ 32] , became dom inant.
In Xinbarhuyouqi, the A nthus godlew ski i-
Ember i z a schoeniclus community of the natural
g rassland changed into the A. arv ensi s-A n. go-
dlew ski i community through mow ing. In nomadic
g rasslands A l . ar vensis became the dom inant com-
munity, w hich further changed to the Er emophi la
alp estr i s community or the Oenathe i sabel lina
community in sett led g razing gr assland. N o Em-
ber i z a spp. individuals w ere found in the g razing
g rasslands as the r esult of the lo ss o f their perc-
hing stems w ith the disappearance of dicoty ledon-
ous plants such as Aetemisia spp. in the upper lay-
er. The disappearance o f the plural st ructur e of
plant communit ies likely r esulted in the deg rada-
t ion of bird habitat quality. M oreover, it w as
thought that overgr azing caused so il compact ion
and vegetation degr adation, w hich in tur n created a
suitable env ir onment w here species such as E.
alp estr i s and O. isabell ina could dom inate[ 34, 35] .
Fur thermor e, soil compact ion and vegetat ion deg-
radat ion w ere st rong ly related to the increases in
the density of Microtus brandt i . Because O. i sa-
bel l ina utilizes rodent burr ow s as nests, increases
in rodent densit ies might explain the increases of
O. i sabel lina in g razing areas[ 18, 26] .
Conservation strategies to realize coexistence of wild-
life and local people
Decline o f the biolo gical community by such
livesto ck grazing pract ices as described above has
494
第 5期 时坤:内蒙古北部呼伦贝尔草原放牧的生态代价与野生动物保护战略
occur red indir ect ly as a r esult of changes in the
stock farming system accompanied by increases in
the human populat ion of the region. T he nomadic
system that w as pract iced by most sto ckmen in In-
ner M ongolia in the past has been regarded as a
symbo l of coexistence o f human society and na-
ture[ 13, 36] . It is believed that the system is based on
the prem ise that liv estock density w ould not ex ceed
the carry ing capacity of g rassland. Present ly, the
realizat ion of the t radit ional nomadic system in
most areas of Inner M ongolia is impo ssible because
stocking intensity is too high. Increases in human
populat ion and the number of livestock have caused
a dismant ling o f the nomadic sy stem and the con-
frontation betw een human society and natural eco-
systems [ 17] .
Unsustainable land use pract ices including
overgr azing in arid and semiarid lands alw ay s have
the possibil ity to cause desert ificat ion [ 37] . Deser t-i
f icat ion caused by stock farming is due to an incon-
sistency in human populat ion and land carrying ca-
pacity, w hich causes the decline and the desert if-i
cation of the ecosy stem through land abuse[ 38] .
Unt il now , the decline of g rassland ecosy stems by
stocking in dry zones has alr eady been exper ienced
by many countr ies and areas in the w orld, such as
w estern Amer ica, Africa, India, the M iddle East ,
and Sakhalin
[ 37]
. T he eco logical appr oach to sus-
tainable land use and natural conservat ion in arid
and semiarid lands has been taken only in the re-
cent half century
[ 39, 40]
. How ever, based on the sit-
uat ions that natural grasslands in dry areas have a-l
r eady been lost , w e know that it is not easy to at-
tain sustainable use and natur al conser vation in ar-
id g rasslands.
It is needless to say that the losses o f biodiver-
sity w ill af fect human survival[ 41] . The decline o f
land product iv ity and the expansion o f damaged ar-
eas caused by land desolat ion through overgrazing
w ere in many cases part of a chain react ion acco rd-
ing to the accelerat ion process[ 42] . It w ill also cause
ex tensiv e damage to the environment w here human
live as w ell as the food product ion[ 43] . It may be
possible to stop so il desolat ion and vegetat ion ret-
rog ression in dry areas by remov ing art if icial im-
pacts
[ 29]
. It w as clarif ied that the establishment of
mow ing pract ices in this reg ion affected the recov-
ery o f g rassland vegetat ion and bird commun-i
t ies [ 18, 19] . H ow ever, it may be expected that env-i
ronmental st ress could become st ronger under the
act ivit ies of livestock feed g rain product ion and
pastur e improvement, etc. unless incr eases in the
number of liv estock and human population are
stopped. If the privat izat ion o f mow ing land is pro-
moted, the influence on bio log ical communit ies by
human act ivities w ould expand and w ildlife hab-i
tats could be lost
[ 16]
. Already the surv iv al rates of
Black- tailed Sandpiper chicks have substant ially
decreased due to intensive mow ing accompanied by
dairy farming in the Netherlands[ 44] .
U nder the social background of increasing hu-
man populat ions and livestock numbers, the ex ist-
ence of unused g rassland is regarded as very pre-
cious w ildlife habitat
[ 21]
. How ever, the po ssibil-i
t ies of the expansion of surr ounding grazing lands
and surrounding mow ing lands are very high and
the unused areas are potent ial grazing lands that
may prove necessar y in or der to support livesto ck
production.
T he idea of sustainable use based on the har-
mony of nature and human being s is the core of
modern natural conservat ion theo ry, as presented
in the concept o f biosphere preser vation areas by
U NESCO [ 45] . If the conservation and sustainable
use of grassland eco systems are r ealizable in spite
of ov erg razing in northern Inner M ongolia, it could
be declar ed that such conserv at ion is useful to the
promo t ion of the reg ional economy and the im-
provement of residents living quality.
T he realizat ion o f t radit ional nomadism is im-
possible in the nor thern Inner M ongolian grassland
as it stands today. Coex istence o f human and w ild-
life can only be achieved present ly by separat ing
living areas. T he unused g rassland in the border
area betw een M ongolia and Russia, w hich is st ill
alienated f rom sto ck- farming product ion, is the
most desirable selection for nature conservation in
this r eg ion and can present ly pro vide the histor ical
495
草 地 学 报 第 15卷
opportunity for the establishment of a biospher e
reserve. How ever, the under standing of local res-i
dents is very impor tant to the preservat ion of the
natur e reserve. Conf licts of conservation w ith the
regional economy may be lessened by the int roduc-
t ion o f eco- tourism in the buf fer zone of the poten-
t ial bio sphere r eser ve. T he establishment o f such
reserve w ill st reng then the conser vation and recov-
ery of the grassland eco system dom inated pr esent ly
by humans and liv estock. T he policy of sustainable
grassland use in this region should be pract iced ac-
cording to the basic idea of coex istence of humans
and nature.
Therefore, ir rational land use pract ices must
be rest ricted and measur es must be taken such as
the r evival of desert ar eas by the complete protec-
t ion system , decentralization o f high-density popu-
lat ion ar eas, and rest rict ion of liv estock graz-
ing[ 46] . M oreover, the local indust rial st ructur e
must be regulated because the carr ying capacities
of gr asslands are current ly disreg arded and all as-
pects of stock farming are destr oying the natural e-
cosystem. In order to r ealize the coexistence of hu-
mans and w ildl ife, the breakaw ay to intensiv e
stock farm ing management from the cur rent ly
practiced sem-i nomadic style is required. Intensiv e
stock farming pract ices are connected to improve-
ments in other social aspects such as the stockmen
education, medical t reatment , dw elling, culture,
and entertainment. Sales of products and the de-
velopment o f r elated t ransportation indust ry may
become possible through the promot ion of stock
farm ing. T he promot ion of dairy products by cen-
tralized stock farming and the leather product in-
dust ry are considered to be rational selections in
light o f the lack o f capital and delay s in foreseen
inf rast ructure maintenance. In parallel to eco-
tour ism in natural grasslands, the promot ion o f
green tourism in intensiv e dairy farm ing areas may
also be appropriate. The eco-gr een tour isms w ould
be benef it s to w ildlife conservat ion, as the oppos-i
t ional aspects betw een nature and human being
could be al lev iated by increasing the incomes of lo-
cal people w ho get money by tourism ser vices in-
stead of intensive ag ricultur al product ion, while
the change o f lo cal indust rial st ructure could re-
duce disturbance o f human act ivit ies on w ildlife.
Actually, there w er e some case studies provided
the evidence of ecolog ically sustainable of ecotour-
ism . For instance, T isdel l and Wilson
[ 47]
discussed
that the eco tourism at southeastern Queensland
based on turt le-w atching had both po sit iv e indirect
and direct consequences for the conservat ion of
lo ggerhead sea tur tles; Espinosa and Monteros
[ 48]
indicated that ecotourism w as pro viding benefit s to
the conserv at ion o f the protected ar eas in Mex ico.
How ever, in o rder to r each this targ et , the
understanding of local residents and suppo rt of lo-
cal so ciety netw orks ar e very important. T hat is,
to set aside ar eas that could po ssibly be ut ilized by
human beings in order to protect w ildlife, the a-
gr eement o f local societ ies must be obtained. If
conservat ion pr act ices are not carried out by the
suppo rt of local residents, success is not likely
w hile the nature reserve may be explo ited by local
cit izens and it w ill take long t ime for the ar ea to be
recovered to a natural state.
Although the ow nership o f w ildlife resources
belong s to the countr y, the duty o f pr otect ion of
w ildlife and its habitat is dependent upon people in
China
[ 49]
. The gover nment of no rthern Inner M on-
go lia region has already been promot ing a new
The Three Don t po licy ( don t cut dow n natural
forests, don t develop farm land more than it a-l
ready is, and don t kill wildlife) [ 50] . H ow ever, the
existence o f poaching , illeg al dealing of w ildlife
products, and the potent ial environmental crisis
f rom expansion of sto ck farming are not crit ical is-
sues to the local so ciety members.
T herefore, the immediate establishment of a
nature reserv e is the emergency measure needed to
stop the degradat ion of the grassland ecosystem.
T his must be follow ed by long- term plans such as
env ironmental educat ion that may increase the con-
sciousness level among local r esidents w ith regard
to nature conserv at ion.
Of course, populat ion restrict ion is the most
important measur e that needs to be taken. T he de-
496
第 5期 时坤:内蒙古北部呼伦贝尔草原放牧的生态代价与野生动物保护战略
populat ion phenomenon as a result o f a decr ease in
birthrate in grassland fam ilies and movement to ur-
ban areas should be promoted as the opportunity o f
natur e conservat ion according to the advance of ur-
banizat ion. In addition, changes in management
practices are necessary so that they can ut ilize the
limited resources more scient if ically and eff icient-
ly. A lthough increase in the carrying capacity o f
grassland can be achiev ed, the cost and ecolo gical
risk of int roduced forage plant ing and ir rigat ion
must be considered. M oreover, as reported w ith
the example of the Kalmykia Republic, if the area
is not economically and eco logically suitable to
stock farm ing, it must be removed from sto ck-
farm ing lands according to the classificat ion man-
agement methods o f grasslands
[ 51]
.
Conclusion
In northern Inner M ongo lia, the nomadic sy s-
tem has been changing to a set tled grazing system
in associat ion with increases in the populat ions o f
humans and livestock. Grazing pressure, w hich
caused deg radat ion o f plant communit ies, w as least
intense in mow ing lands, fo llow ed by nomadic
lands, and f inally grazing lands w here the pressur e
w as g reat . Dominant species in natur al grasslands
changed from the St ip a spp. -L . chinensis-Cl .
spuar rosa community to the L . chinensi s-C . dur i-
uscula-Cl . sp uarr osa community in mow ing grass-
land, where human act ivit ies were perm itted af ter
August of every year, and changed to the L .
chinensi s -C . dur iuscula community in nomadic
grassland. How ever, vegetation changed to the C.
dur iuscula-Potent il la spp. -A . f r igi ta community
in the set t led grassland where overgrazing w as
most intense.
In sett led g rasslands, bir d species dependent
on human st ructures, such as H . rusti ca and P .
montanus, became the sub-dom inant species. In
nomadic grasslands, A . arv ensi s became the dom-i
nant community, w hich fur ther changed to the E.
alp est ri s community or O. isabel l ina community in
set tled g razing g rassland. Decline of the biolo gical
community by such livesto ck grazing pract ices as
described above has occurred indirect ly as a result
of changes in the sto ck farming system accompa-
nied by increases in the human populat ion of the
region. Under the social backg round of increasing
human populations and livesto ck numbers, the ex-
istence of unused g rassland is regarded as very pre-
cious w ildlife habitat .
T herefore, the immediate establishment of a
nature reserv e is the emergency measure needed to
stop the degradat ion of the grassland ecosystem.
T his must be follow ed by long term plans such as
env ironmental education that may increase the level
of consciousness among local residents w ith regard
to nature conservat ion. Population restr ict ion is
the most important measure that needs to be
taken. T he depopulat ion phenomenon as a result of
a decrease in birthrate in grassland fam ilies, and
movement to ur ban ar eas should be pr omoted as
the opportunity o f nature conser vation according to
the advance of urbanization. In addit ion, changes
in management practices so that they are mo re sc-i
ent ific and can ut ilize the lim ited resour ces mo re ef-
f icient ly ar e necessary.
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农药学学报
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